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ROBERGE    t   FOOT   OF   HORSE   OR 

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TfFO  IVEEKS 


TENDONS  AND  LIGAMENTS  OF  THE  FORELEG. 


—A   A.  Flexor  pedis  perforatus. 
—  B    B.        "  "'     perforans. 

C     ('.  Metacarpal  or  cheek  lig- 
ament. 
-P     D.  Superior   suspensory  lig- 
ament. 


At  fork  between  two  D's. 
Insertion  of  check  liga- 
ment into  perforans. 


D.  Superior  suspensory  lig- 
ament. 
P>.   Flexor  perforans. 


—•A    A.   Flexor  perforatus. 


4  d. 


— ^ 


-B 


Bifurcation  of  the  su- 
perior suspensory  liga- 
ment. 

Branch  of  the  superior 
suspensory,  which  is 
called  the  inferior  sus- 
pensory ligament.  of 
which  there  are  two — 
one  inside  and  one  out- 
side. 

Insertion  at  the  upper  end 
of  the  lower  pastern. 
Insertion  of  the  perfor- 
atus. 

1'..  Continuation  of  perfor- 
ans, afterwards  becom- 
ing inserted  into  the 
lower  back  part  of  the 
pedal-bone. 

S.    Splint  bone. 

E.   Extensor  tendon. 

M.  Great  metacarpol  or  can- 
non or  splint  bone. 

E.  Extensor  tendon. 


From  Col.  Fitzuygram's  "  Horses 


and  Stables."] 


THE 


FOOT  OF  THE  HORSE 


OR 


Lameness  and  all  Diseases  of  the  Feet 


TRACED   TO    AN 


UNBALANCED  FOOT  BONE 

Prevented  or  Cured  by  Balancing  the  Foot 


DAVID    ROBERGE 


New  York: 

WILLIAM  R.  JENKINS, 

Veterinary  Publisher  and  Bookseller, 

851  &  853  Sixth  Avenue. 

LONDON  :  BAILL1ERE,  TINDALL  &  COX. 


Copyright,  1894, 
DAVID  ROBERGE. 


Dedication. 


ROBERT     BONNER, 

Whose  name  t's  synonymous  with  everything  that  is  of  good  report 
in  the  realm  of  horses;  who  has  been  my  encourager  in  a  very  im- 
portant but  little-known  field  of  investigation;  who  shares  equally 
with  me  the  desire  to  abolish  or  mitigate  the  sufferings  of  horses 
which  we  know  to  be  preventable  and  therefore  unnecessary,  by  the 
diffusion  of  a  better  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  horseshoeing  than 
what  prevails  at  the  present  time;  who  recognizes  with  me  the  im- 
portance of  the  art  of  horseshoeing  to  the  general  welfare  of  society; 
and  would  aid  in  doing  all  that  is  possible  to  promote  the  highest 
degree  of  technical  and  practical  education  among  horseshoers  at- 
tainable; and  furthermore,  as  a  small  but  just  and  honest  tribute  of 
personal  esteem  and  gratitude,  arising  out  of  an  almost  constant 
companionship  in  study  during  the  past  twenty-five  years; 

AND   WITH   THE   UTMOST   RESPECT, 

THIS    BOOK    IS    DEDICATED 

BY 

THE    AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


This  work  will  be  found  to  be  entirely  new,  and  on 
a  different  plan  from  anything  of  the  kind  which  has 
yet  been  presented.  The  writers  upon  the  subject  of 
shoeing  and  the  management  of  horses'  feet  are  very 
numerous,  but  an  analysis  of  their  writings  shows  that 
the  work  of  one  is  often  merely  a  repetition  of  that  of 
another.  The  author  proposes  to  lay  down  a  rule  for 
every  practitioner  or  operator  upon  the  foot  of  the  horse. 
The  cuts  and  drawings  are  entirely  new,  differing  from 
any  others  that  have  so  far  been  presented  to  the  public. 
They  are  the  harvest  or  fruits  of  the  seeds  sown  over 
forty- five  years  ago. 

This  work  on  shoeing  will  show  that  from  one  cen- 
tury to  another,  no  science — either  medical  or  mechani- 
cal— has  yet  arrived  at  the  root  of  the  causes  from  which 
result  the  daily  ailments  and  lamenesses.  It  will  cast 
a  new  light  before  the  eyes  of  the  veterinary  profession, 
and  prove  clearly  that,  instead  of  the  medical  science 
which  men  have  studied  from  one  generation  to  an- 
other, their  works  have  brought  forth  no  recompense. 
Had  they  spent  their  allotted  time  in  the  study  of 
mechanical  science  in  reference  to  the  horse's  hoof,  no 
doubt  they  would  have  found  a  specific  for  each  and 
every  ailment  centuries  ago. 


VI  PREFACE. 

The  following  illustrations  of  improved  methods  of 
shoeing  horses — whether  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
diseases  and  lamenesses  or  for  removing  or  ameliorat- 
ing those  abnormal  conditions  when  they  present  them- 
selves— are  so  simple  that  any  one  endowed  with  ordinary 
intellect  may  readily  perceive  from  the  various  drawings, 
each  suitable  to  its  own  disease,  how  accurately  he  might 
arrive  at  the  precise  point  and  make  a  correct  diagnosis, 
thereby  enabling  him  to  prescribe  a  specific  for  each  case 
that  presents  itself. 

The  accompanying  drawings  of  various  postures  will 
enable  the  operator  to  form  a  correct  prognosis,  as  well 
as  an  accurate  diagnosis,  and  without  being  capable  of 
complying  with  the  latter  it  will  be  an  utter  impossi- 
bility to  assent  to  the  former. 

The  following  mechanical  appliances  are  composed — 

i .  Of  any  device  which  may  tend  to  change  the  bear- 
ing or  maintain  the  equilibrium,  such  as  a  shoe  formed 
or  constructed  in  such  a  manner  as  the  case  may  require. 

2.  The  hoof  itself  so  modified  by  paring  or  rasping 
as  to  arrive  at  the  required  form. 

3.  Of  any  appliance  for  expanding  the  hoof,  so  as  to 
symmetrize  the  foot  proper. 

4.  The  surface  on  which  the  horse  stands  constructed 
as  the  case  may  require,  having  an  ascent  or  descent,  to 
change  the  pathological  conditions  or  postures  into  a 
physiological  stature  or  attitude. 


THE   FOOT  OF  THE   HORSE. 


Introduction. 


Regarding  the  introduction  of  a  new  theory  concern- 
ing the  foot  of  the  horse,  I  presume  the  person  claiming 
its  paternal  relationship  will  be  expected  to  make  some 
introductory  remarks  appropriate  to  the  occasion. 

To  the  best  of  my  knowledge  and  belief,  the  theory 
or  system  of  horseshoeing  which  I  am  now  about  to  pre- 
sent to  the  readers  of  this  book  has  been  in  existence 
about  forty-five  years. 

It  is  by  no  means  young  and  crude ;  it  has  been  in 
practice  for  these  forty-five  years ;  and  now  in  the  full 
vigor  of  its  ripe  maturity  I  have  the  honor  to  present 
it  to  all  who  take  any  interest  whatever  in 

"  That  wondrous  link  in  being's  chain," 

the  horse. 

That  inexhaustible  subject,  the  foot  of  the  horse,  has 
furnished  texts  for  many  a  laboriously  learned  disserta- 
tion as  well  as  supplied  themes  for  the  pens  of  ready 
writers  of  briefer  treatises,  both  professional  and  ama- 
teur, and  yet  I  have  an  impression  that  "  the  half  hath 
not  been  told"  that  may  yet  be  revealed  concerning  it. 

The  importance  of  the  horse  as  a  factor  in  the  vari- 
ous civilizations  and  the  different  stages  of  all  civiliza- 
tions, I  think  has  never  yet  been  sufficiently  estimated. 

Notwithstanding  the  progress  of  the  equine  race  in 
the  development  of  its  capacities  and  possibilities,  I  deem 


2  THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

it  a  reasonable  inference  that  when  the  full  requirements 
of  his  whole  nature  from  an  educational  as  well  as  a  phys- 
ical standpoint  are  fully  appreciated  and  carried  out  in 
practice,  not  only  will  there  be  greater  individual  achieve- 
ments in  speed  and  endurance  which  will  shed  lustre 
upon  the  race,  but  there  will  be  a  great  general  improve- 
ment all  along  the  line,  very  much  for  the  benefit  and  ad- 
vantage of  the  horse  as  well  as  of  his  human  proprietor 
from  every  point  of  view. 

At  the  present  time,  speaking  broadly,  there  seems  to 
be  such  an  inscrutable  mystery  concerning  the  foot  of 
the  horse  and  the  origin  of  its  diseases  that  it  constitutes 
a  fatal  inheritance  to  the  whole  equine  race  in  domesti- 
cated circumstances,  that  fatal  inheritance  being  the 
eternal  tendency  of  his  feet  to  destroy  his  natural  balance, 
combined  with  the  lack  of  knowledge  of  how  to  preserve 
it  on  the  part  of  his  guardians. 

From  an  economic  standpoint  the  horse-raising  in- 
dustry has  attained  enormous  proportions,  the  census  of 
1880  showing  the  existence  of  eleven  millions  of  horses 
at  that  time,  and  doubtless  the  last  census  has  shown  a 
great  increase  in  the  number,  but  as  it  is  not  at  hand  I 
will  not  risk  any  misstatement.  I  merely  want  to  em- 
phasize the  magnitude  of  this  industry  to  show  the  im- 
portance of  correct  knowledge  of  the  absolute  require- 
ments of  horses  from  the  earliest  period  of  their  colthood 
to  the  latest  day  of  their  horsehood. 

I  have  an  impression  that  it  will  be  many  a  day,  if 
ever,  before  the  various  utilities  of  the  horse  in  the 
armies  of  the.  world  and  in  the  greater  and  lesser  cen- 
tres of  commerce  and  population  can  or  will  be  super- 
seded to  any  great  extent  by  electricity,  steam,  or  any 
other  force  whatever. 

Some  medical  discoveries  beneficial  to  the  human 
race  are  found  to  benefit  incidentally  the  equine  species, 
and  the  comparative  pathologist  finds  so  much  in  common 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  3 

T)etween  the  two  that  he  can  readily  become  the  efficient 
medical  attendant  of  both. 

It  is  a  regrettable  circumstance,  however,  that  while 
the  general  progress  of  human  and  veterinary  medical 
science  has  been  found  to  be  mutually  beneficial,  there 
is  one  branch  of  what  is  called  veterinary  science  in 
which  progress  appears  to  have  been  fatally  arrested. 
Need  I  say  that  this  is  the  branch  which  relates  to  the 
hygienic  treatment  of,  as  well  as  to  the  diseases  and 
their  remedies  of,  the  locomotory  system  of  the  horse? 

Without  going  further  back  than  toward  the  close  of 
the  last  century,  it  will  be  interesting  to  cite  a  few  facts 
from  a  reliable  authority  upon  the  state  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  horseshoeing  in  England,  and  to  learn  if  any 
and  what  progress  has  been  made  therein  during  the 
past  one  hundred  years. 

Professor  Gamgee,  in  his  historical  sketch  concerning 
horseshoeing,  informs  us  that  toward  the  close  of  the 
last  century,  "  the  ablest  men  at  that  time  who  had 
studied  the  subject  were  deeply  impressed  with  the  im- 
portance of  the  art  of  horseshoeing  as  essential  to  the 
state,  to  agriculture  and  to  commerce,  to  the  efficiency 
of  an  army  and  to  the  general  wants  of  society." 

This  was  the  leading  idea  that  caused  the  founding 
of  colleges  and  schools  first  in  France  and  then  in  Eng- 
land. The  main  object  was  the  improvement  of  the  art 
of  horseshoeing;  the  medical  treatment  was  secondary 
and  incidental.  These  men  regarded  the  foot  as  the 
essential  part  of  the  horse ;  they  were  observant  enough 
to  know  that  the  shoe  was  an  instrument  of  good  or  ill, 
of  life  or  death  to  the  horse,  and  the  great  desideratum 
then  was  felt  to  be,  doubtless  what  it  is  to-day,  a  better 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  shoeing  horses. 

This  art  must  have  been  in  a  very  unsatisfactory 
state  at  that  time  to  have  called  forth  so  much  of  organ- 
ized effort  to  place  it  upon  a  more  satisfactory  footing. 


4  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

Glancing  at  the  first  college  founded  in  England,  its. 
founders  were  dominated  by  the  same  convictions  of  the 
necessity  that  existed  for  a  system  of  shoeing  whereby 
the  enormous  destruction  of  horse  property  and  values 
then  going  on  could  be  arrested. 

Professor  Coleman,  virtually  the  first  principal  and 
professor  of  the  English  college,  himself  declared  that 
"  a  proper  method  of  shoeing  horses  was  of  more  impor- 
tance than  the  treatment  of  any,  or  perhaps  all,  diseases 
incidental  to  the  horse." 

All  through  the  century  this  statement  or  declaration 
has  been  repeated  and  emphasized  by  every  writer  of 
note  on  the  foot  diseases  of  the  horse,  but  notwithstand- 
ing all  their  efforts  and  their  hopes  and  expectations 
they  were  doomed  to  disappointment,  and  the  waste  and 
destruction  of  horses,  according  to  Professor  Gamgee, 
was  as  rife  seventy-five  years  later  as  the  day  the  first 
college  was  established. 

The  opinion  has  been  often  expressed,  and  I  think  is 
very  likely  to  be  true,  that  the  destruction  of  horses  and 
consequently  of  their  value  is  many  times  greater  from 
diseases  of  the  feet  than  from  all  other  causes  combined. 

The  two  latest  writers  of  any  note  upon  the  subject 
of  horseshoeing  have  both  deplored  in  similar  terms  the 
absence  as  well  as  the  need  of  a  theory  or  system  that 
would  throw  light  upon  the  origin  of  the  diseases  of 
horses'  feet,  and  from  the  tenor  of  their  observations 
would  have  hailed  the  advent  of  such  a  theory  as  a  boon 
of  great  importance  both  to  society  and  to  horses. 

Professor  Gamgee  and  Mr.  Fleming  used  language 
very  similar  to  the  following :  A  theory  or  system  of 
shoeing  horses  of  uniform  and  universal  application  that 
would  throw  light  upon  the  origin  of  diseases  and  put 
an  end  forever  to  ceaseless  and  useless  controversies, 
which  would  harmonize  conflicting  opinions  and  show 
the  true  sequence  of  the  originating  cause  or  causes  and 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  5 

the  final  effects  of  disorders  of  the  locomotory  machin- 
ery of  the  horse — such  a  theory  or  system  had  not  then 
appeared  in  either  the  earlier  or  the  later  times. 

By  some  the  present  century  is  said  to  have  been  the 
greatest  century  of  progress  in  the  various  arts  of  which 
we  have  any  historical  record,  in  view  of  which  we  might 
well  ask  what  has  been  the  progress,  if  any,  in  the 
science  or  art  of  horseshoeing  during  that  period? 

I  prefer  that  this  question  should  be  answered  by 
Professor  Gamgee,  himself  a  horseshoer  and  the  histo- 
rian of  horseshoeing  in  the  present  century. 

When  he  wrote  his  famous  work,  as  he  deemed  it,  on 
lameness  of  horses  some  twenty  years  ago,  we  are  in- 
formed that  he  attended  the  lectures  of  Professor  Cole- 
man at  the  London  college  nearly  seventy-five  years 
before  that  time,  which  must  have  been  shortly  after 
the  opening  of  the  college.  Professor  Coleman  had  no 
special  fitness  for  the  appointments  he  held  as  teacher  of 
veterinary  medicine  and  horseshoeing,  having  no  prac- 
tical acquaintance  whatever  with  horses,  yet  this  young 
man  of  twenty-four  years  of  age  was  invested  with 
authority  to  dictate  the  style  or  system  of  shoeing  horses 
to  every  farrier  in  the  British  army  and  to  every  horse- 
shoer outside  of  it.  The  pupil  became  a  favorite  of  the 
teacher,  we  are  told,  but  this  was  a  poor  makeweight  for 
the  small  quantity  and  the  poor  quality  of  the  teach- 
ing. Further,  Mr.  Gamgee  says  that  the  small  amount 
of  the  teaching  was  the  lesser  evil  of  the  two.  What 
he  had  been  taught  to  believe  in  and  to  rely  upon 
as  scientific  knowledge,  when  reduced  to  practice  turned 
out  to  be  mere  "verbose  trash"  or  "the  expression  of 
crude  hobbies." 

I  commend  Mr.  Gamgee's  observations  to  the  horse- 
shoers  of  this  country.  As  one  of  their  class  he  regarded 
the  craft  in  his  day,  and  probably  does  so  still  if  he  is 
living,  as  "  a  degraded  and  disbanded  craft,  a  body  of 


6  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

men  the  victims  of  bad  instruction,  and  in  want  of  in- 
telligent leadership." 

I  think  I  but  express  the  truth  when  I  say  the  great 
need  of  the  time  to  horseshoers,  as  a  body,  is  higher 
trained  skill  in  their  art,  and  the  "  spirit  of  progress" 
should  inspire  them  to  make  efforts  to  acquire  a  higher 
standard  of  technical  education,  and  that  would  elevate 
them  as  a  body  in  the  estimation  of  the  community  as 
much  higher  than  that  of  the  mere  veterinary  surgeon 
as  the  art,  or  science  rather,  of  shoeing  horses  transcends 
in  importance  to  society  that  of  the  merely  medical  re- 
quirements of  the  horse. 

As  showing  what  was  considered  advanced  knowledge 
about  the  middle  of  the  century,  a  veterinary  surgeon 
named  James  Turner  wrote  an  essay  on  one  disease  or 
lesion  of  the  foot  and  gave  it  a  name,  navicular  disease. 
No  light  was  thrown  upon  the  primary  causes  of  the 
disease,  and  no  remedy  suggested  beyond  the  usual  firing, 
blistering,  and  rest  at  grass,  and,  as  a  last  resort,  neurot- 
omy. From  recent  works  on  lameness  I  don't  think 
much  advance  has  been  made  beyond  this  treatment  up 
to  the  present  time. 

I  had  almost  forgotten  to  mention  that  Mr.  Turner 
recommended  one-sided  nailing  in  this  disease,  and  this  is 
spoken  of  as  the  unilateral  plan  of  nailing.  Mr.  Tur- 
ner, however,  is  to  be  credited  with  the  following  esti- 
mate of  the  status  of  the  veterinary  profession  in  his 
day.  He  writes :  "  It  has  been  seized  with  apathy ;  no 
weighty  facts  of  the  enduring  kind  have  been  chronicled. 
The  remedy  and  grand  requirement  of  the  present  crisis 
is  an  infusion  of  fresh  vigor  and  an  energetic  spirit  for 
research."  As  horseshoeing  was  then  considered  a 
branch  of  veterinary  science,  it  seems  to  me  that  Mr. 
Turner  must  have  regarded  it,  as  a  dead  branch,  as  no 
reference  is  made  to  it,  though  coming  clearly  within 
the  scope  of  his  remarks. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  / 

Twenty-five  or  thirty  years  later  Mr.  Gamgee  could 
Teview  his  experience  of  seventy-five  years,  and  he  can- 
didly informs  us  that  he  had  "  oscillated  from  one  set  of 
errors  to  another  during-  that  time,"  and  he  describes  the 
system  in  vogue  as  an  evil  of  incalculable  magnitude. 
Said  he,  "  Look  in  our  streets,  consult  owners  of  horses, 
and  what  is  the  result?"  Lameness,  the  common  effect, 
which  damages  and  destroys  more  horses  than  all  the 
other  diseases  put  together  to  which  they  are  liable. 
The  cause  is  bad  shoeing — the  remedy  must  be  good 
shoeing. 

I  wish  now  to  say  a  little  about  my  theory  or  system 
and  its  outcome,  the  centre -bearing  shoe. 

I  glean  from  Mr.  Gamgee 's  writings  more  than  from 
any  other  that  the  great  desideratum  in  the  art  of  horse- 
shoeing to  have  been  considered  by  all  the  founders  of 
the  French  and  English  colleges,  a  theory  or  system, 
the  fundamental  facts  or  principles  of  which  shall  be  in 
absolute  consonance  with  the  structural  fact  or  principles 
of  the  organs  of  locomotion — a  theory  or  system  which 
shall  be  of  universal  application — that  is  to  say,  to  all 
horses  of  whatever  kind  or  description;  that  it  shall 
throw  light  upon  the  origin  of  departures  from  normally 
healthy  conditions,  and  be  instrumental  in  the  restora- 
tion of  those  conditions  when  they  have  been  departed 
from;  which  shall,  moreover,  be  easy  to  understand  and 
acquire,  easy  of  practical  application,  shall  be  compara- 
tively inexpensive  as  to  cost,  and  shall  be  easily  de- 
monstrable. 

If  this  be  the  theory  or  system  they  have  been  search- 
ing for,  let  them  desist  from  any  further  search,  for  it 
has  been  found.  I  claim  to  have  found  it  many  years 
ago,  and  I  claim  also  the  above  theory  will  be  found 
fully  elucidated  in  these  pages. 

I  have  always  regarded  the  horse  as  a  locomotive  en- 
gine on  legs,  instead  of  one  on  wheels,  one  being  driven 


8  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

by  nerve-force  and  the  other  by  steam.  I  never  watched 
a  house's  movements  without  associating  with  them  the 
ideas  of  the  lever,  the  level,  and  the  plumb-line  at  first, 
and  later  on  of  axes  of  motion,  of  centres  of  bearing, 
centres  of  gravity,  centres  of  rotation,  and  so  on.  A 
perfect  balance  was  soon  suggested  as  the  one  thing  need- 
ful to  keep  the  horse  in  perpetual  working  order. 

The  idea  or  principle  of  perfect  balance,  therefore, 
is  the  master  key  of  my  theory. 

I  regard  a  perfect  balance  of  the  pedal  bone  essentially 
and  absolutely  necessary  to  attain  or  maintain  the  normal 
.condition  of  the  foot  and  leg  to  which  it  belongs. 

This  work  will  show,  as  well  as  the  language  at  my 
•command  will  permit,  that  not  less  than  fifty-four  forms 
of  disease  or  diseased  action  which  affect  the  various 
tissues  of  which  the  limb  is  composed  can  all  be  traced 
clearly  and  unmistakably  to   one  cause,  and  that  one 

Cause  AN  UNBALANCED  TEDAL  BONE. 

The  discovery  of  this  principle  alone  would  have 
been  one  of  considerable  importance,  but  I  consider  the 
value  of  this  discovery  is  immeasurably  enhanced  by 
the  discovery  of  the  centre-bearing  shoe,  since  there  is 
scarcely  a  lameness  of  any  kind  or  degree  which  may 
not  be  immediately  relieved  by  the  application  of  this 
shoe,  and  not  only  so,  but  this  shoe  will  facilitate  the 
cure  of  all  curable  ailments  in  a  shorter  time  and  with- 
out turning  the  horse  out  to  grass,  than  by  any  other 
means  that  I  have  ever  heard  or  read  of. 

Another  brief  reference  to  Mr.  Gamgee  may  be  per- 
mitted. In  his  work  upon  "  Horseshoeing  and  the 
Lameness  of  Horses  "  I  find  this  passage,  which  shows 
how  closely  he  verged  toward  my  theory  without  having 
touched  its  mainspring.  He  writes:  "It  is  perfectly 
obvious  that  it  would  be  hopeless  to  attempt  to  describe 
the  structures  of  the  whole  limb  of  the  horse,  or  to  prove 
in  a  detailed  manner  how  the  condition  of  the  foot  nee- 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  9 

■essarily  reacts  upon  all  the  joints  of  the  limb  above  it." 
My  theory  was  almost  within  his  grasp  at  that  time,  al- 
though for  twenty  years  before  that  it  had  been  revealed 
to  me,  and  later  on  I  had  been  teaching  it  to  many  per- 
sons in  Canada  and  the  United  States.  Mr.  Gamgee 
had  studied  well  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
horse's  leg,  but  had  left  the  study  of  its  purely  mechani- 
cal functions  to  others.  It  has  been  my  task  to  describe 
the  structures  which  he  believed  would  have  been  a 
hopeless  attempt  within  the  limits  of  his  treatise,  and  I 
think  I  have  shown  in  a  detailed  manner  and  conclu- 
sively how  the  condition  of  the  foot — in  other  words,  the 
unbalanced  condition  of  the  pedal  bone — necessarily 
acts  and  reacts  mechanically  upon  all  the  joints  of  the 
limb  above  it. 

Honor  to  Whom  Honor  is  Due. 

I  suppose  I  shall  find  no  more  fitting  opportunity 
than  the  present  one  for  the  expression  of  my  very  deep 
sense  of  obligation  and  gratitude  to  a  gentleman  whose 
name  is  as  familiar  as  "household  words"  throughout 
our  broad  country,  and  I  have  no  doubt  in  regions  be- 
yond, to  every  admirer  and  lover  of  the  horse.  The 
name  of  that  gentleman  is  Robert  Bonner.  If  this  effort 
to  improve  the  art  of  horseshoeing  and  thereby  to  bene- 
fit society  shall  eventuate  in  the  success  that  is  hoped 
for  it  and  believed  that  it  should  do,  I  could  not  say  to 
whom  the  horse  and  his  owner  will  be  the  most  indebted, 
Mr.  Bonner  or  myself. 

It  has  been  a  severe  labor  to  me  to  learn  a  language 
and  write  a  book  of  this  nature  in  the  "  sere  and  yellow 
leaf"  of  my  age,  and  though  I  long  cherished  the  idea 
of  publishing  this  theory  to  the  world,  yet  I  verily  be- 
lieve that  had  I  not  been  reminded  from  time  to  time  by 
that  gentleman  to  ivork  while  it  was  yet  day,  the  execution 


IO  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

of  this  purpose  might  easily  have  been  postponed  until 
it  was  too  late.  Shortly  after  my  first  arrival  in  this  city 
from  Canada  twenty-five  years  ago  I  formed  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Mr.  Robert  Bonner,  who  took  an  immediate  in- 
terest in  my  theory  and  my  mechanical  devices  for  va- 
rious purposes  in  connection  with  the  feet  of  horses. 
My  material  prosperity  was  assured  from  that  very  day. 

I  found  Mr.  Bonner  in  possession  of  important  facts-. 
in  relation  to  the  foot  of  the  horse  not  generally  known, 
and  I  soon  found  that  I  had  in  him  a  shrewd  and  com- 
petent critic  of  my  theories  and  devices. 

Thereafter  much  of  that  gentleman's  time  was  spent 
with  me  in  his  extensive  and  valuable  library,  where  it 
has  been  his  particular  pains  and  I  suppose  his  peculiar 
pleasure  to  gather  together  every  publication,  of  what- 
ever class  or  kind  of  books  or  periodicals  of  the  earlier 
or  the  later  times,  having  any  near  or  remote  reference: 
to  the  horse,  regardless  of  merit  or  cost,  and  where  much 
"  midnight  oil"  has  been  consumed  in  the  discussion  of" 
our  favorite  topics.  His  library  was  our  debating  ground 
and  his  farm  our  convincing  ground. 

So  well  posted  was  he  in  horse  literature  that  he- 
could  lay  his  hand  on  any  book  and  his  finger  on  any- 
citation  that  he  wanted  in  a  few  moments. 

Without  having  any  idea  of  such  a  purpose,  we  might 
have  been  said  to  have  constituted  a  club  of  two,  which 
might  have  been  called  the  Equine  Foot  Club,  or  the  Per- 
fect Balance  Club,  or  the  Horseshoe  Club,  for  all  our  dis- 
cussions had  reference  to  those  questions,  and  for  many 
years  our  meetings  averaged  three  more  than  once  in 
each  week.  "As  iron  sharpeneth  iron,"  etc.,  might 
have  been  the  motto  of  our  club,  for  it  was  in  very  fre- 
quent requisition  to  remind  us  of  the  purposes  for  which 
we  came  together. 

Any  feasible  idea  that  could  be  practically  tested' 
Mr.   Bonner  was  always  willing  to  test  upon  his  own: 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  II 

horses,  which  for  the  last  nineteen  years  have  numbered 
not  less  than  one  hundred  as  an  average. 

Some  explanation  is  due  for  the  unusual  length  and 
the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  topics  of  discussion  con- 
stituting the  first  article,  which  includes  our  observation 
on  the  navicular  disease.  After  considering  this  matter 
I  concluded  to  leave  them  just  as  they  were  written.  I 
bespeak  a  little  indulgence  in  this  matter  on  the  part  of 
the  reader. 

It  will  be  seen  that  my  literary  acquirements  are  not 
of  the  highest  order ;  literature  is  not  my  forte. 

As  said  before,  I  have  had  to  learn  a  language  in  order 
to  be  able  to  write  this  book  such  as  it  is.  I  hope,  how- 
ever, and  believe  that  the  importance  and  value  of  the 
new  information  it  conveys  will  abundantly  atone  for 
every  lack  of  excellence  discernible  in  its  arrangement, 
or  composition.  It  will  be  found  that  some  secrets, 
which  the  foot  has  carried  within  it  have  been  yielded 
up  to  a  close  investigation  of  its  mechanical  construction 
and  arrangement.  It  will  be  seen  that  mechanical  as 
well  as  physiological  causes  are  always  in  operation,  tend- 
ing to  produce  a  derangement  of  the  working  parts  of 
the  machine,  and,  further,  that  mechanical  remedies  are 
ever  at  hand  which  will  infallibly  counteract  derange- 
ment of  this  machinery,  or  when  deranged  restore  it 
again  to  working  order. 

A  Suggestion  to  Horseshoers. 

There  are  several  very  good  reasons  why  every  horse- 
shoer  who  carries  on  business  for  himself  should  pos- 
sess a  creditable  collection  of  specimens  of  healthy  and 
diseased  bone,  of  legs  of  horses  below  the  knee,  and 
hoofs  variously  mounted  and  prepared  to  show  the  dif- 
ferent tissues  composing  the  foot  and  leg,  the  attach- 
ments and  insertions  of  the  tendons  and  ligaments,  ands 


12  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

I  repeat,  healthy  and  diseased  specimens  of  hoofs  and 
bones. 

The  first  reason  is  the  actual  and  positive  knowledge 
that  may  be  acquired  upon  the  structures  composing  the 
leg  with  their  various  purposes  and  functions,  and  the 
readiness  with  which,  in  case  of  an  argument  arising 
thereon,  an  appeal  can  be  carried  to  the  specimens  them- 
selves. 

Another  reason,  that  such  a  collection  would  cost  very 
little  besides  a  little  time  and  labor  and  in  a  year's  time 
would  be  worth  a  good  deal  more  than  it  cost.  Besides, 
a  collection  of  this  nature  affords  fair  presumable  evi- 
dence that  the  man  owning  it  has  made  a  study  of  such 
matters  which  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  ques- 
tion of  shoeing  either  the  sound  or  the  lame  horse,  and 
he  will  be  regarded  as  a  better  authority  on  such  matters 
than  he  who  owns  no  such  collection.  Such  a  collection 
would  repay  in  enhanced  reputation  and  increased  busi- 
ness many  times  the  value  of  its  cost. 

Set  a  barrel  filled  with  water  in  the  back  yard  or  in  a 
corner  of  the  shop  and  place  in  it  everything  from  which 
you  wish  to  detach  the  bones  and  hoofs.  In  a  month's 
time  or  less  everything  will  slip  easily  from  the  bones, 
when  they  can  be  placed  for  a  few  days  in  chloride  of 
lime  water,  which  will  give  them  a  better  smell  and  whiten 
them  besides.  The  hoofs  should  be  cleaned  up  and 
trimmed  up  and  be  filed  up  ship-shape  for  polishing,  if 
you  wish  to  polish  them.  Before  they  dry  and  shrink 
they  should  be  filled  with  plaster-of-Paris  in  any  case. 

If  you  wish  to  polish  them  nail  a  strip  of  thin  wood 
across  the  bottom  of  the  foot  to  serve  for  a  handle  while 
doing  so.  Three  grades  of  fine  emery  cloth,  using  the 
coarsest  first  and  the  finest  last,  should  be  got.  The 
final  rubbing-  should  be  given  with  putty  powder  and 
sweet  oil,  well  rubbed  on  with  a  flannel  rag. 

Legs  should  be  got  up  in  cool  weather  and  should  be 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  1 3 

fresh.  I  would  recommend  you  to  get  a  scalpel  and  for- 
ceps and  do  the  thing-  right.  "  If  at  first  you  don't  suc- 
ceed, try,  try  again."  You  will  soon  get  proud  of  your 
achievements  in  that  line,  and  I  hardly  need  tell  you 
such  a  collection  kept  in  a  glass  cupboard  or  cabinet  would 
be  as  good  as  gold  in  both  pockets  from  the  increased  busi- 
ness it  would  bring  you,  all  other  things  being  equal. 

I  should  have  added  that  after  separating  the  tendons 
and  ligaments  of  the  leg  with  small  bits  of  wood  the 
specimens  should  be  allowed  to  dry  in  a  cool,  airy  place 
such  as  an  open  shed,  and  they  should  be  hung  near  the 
roof. 

Foot  Anatomy  of  the  Horse. 

1.  The  most  obvious  fact  about  the  horse's  foot  is 
that  its  external  portion,  the  hoof,  is  a  very  hard  and 
comparatively  unyielding  substance,  and  that  it  forms 
a  complete  envelope  or  inclosure  for  the  protection  of 
the  sensitive,  living  portion  of  the  foot  within  it. 

The  next  noticeable  fact  is  that  within  this  horny 
inclosure  there  is  a  bone,  a  very  peculiarly  shaped  bone, 
which  is  called  the  pedal  bone,  though  sometimes  it  is 
called  the  foot  bone  or  the  coffin  bone.  I  shall  always 
refer  to  it  as  the  pedal  bone.  This  bone  has  three  prin- 
cipal surfaces,  one  which  corresponds  exactly  with  the 
inner  surface  of  the  hoof,  one  that  rests  upon  the  horny 
sole,  and  the  other  surface  is  called  articulatory,  because 
two  other  bones  are  in  conjunction  with  it  to  form  a 
joint.  The  other  two  bones  are  the  small  pastern  or 
coronary  bone  and  a  very  small  bone  called  the  navicu- 
lar or  sesamoid  bone. 

The  Pedal  Joint. 

2.  The  joint  formed  by  the  three  last-named  bones 
is  called  the  pedal  articulation  or  joint.  The  pedal  bone 
has  what  may  be  called  a  vital  union  with  the  internal 


14  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

■surface  of  the  horny  wall  of  the  foot,  by  means  of  a 
large  number,  nearly  five  hundred,  of  thin  strips  of  tis- 
sue running  from  above  downward  and  interleaving  a 
similar  arrangement  upon  the  internal  surface  of  the 
hoof.  These  little  strips  are  called  lamina  for  the  sin- 
gular and  laminae  for  the  plural. 

The  Foot  Constantly  Enlarged  by  Growth. 

3.  I  wish  early  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  foot  is 
•constantly  enlarging  by  growth,  and  that  this  fact  has  a 
paramount  bearing  upon  the  theory  to  be  enunciated  in 
this  book. 

Points  on  Pointing. 

4.  The  union  of  the  hoof  and  the  pedal  bone  is  of  so 
vital  and  essential  a  character  that  it  is  impossible  to  in- 
terfere with  the  functions  of  one  without  affecting  those 
•of  the  other. 

The  foot  which  enjoys  perfect  equilibrium  to-day 
will  have  lost  a  portion  of  that  equilibrium  by  to-mor- 
row, and  this  law  goes  on  increasing  everyday  until  the 
•overgrowth  of  horn  has  destroyed  the  horse's  due  balance 
so  that  he  can  neither  stand  nor  travel  at  ease;  thus 
showing  that  this  extra  growth  of  horn  requires  trimming 
and  paring  very  frequently  in  order  to  preserve  the  bal- 
ance which  results  from  the  maintenance  of  the  proper 
•size  and  proportions  of  the  hoof. 

Any  increase  or  surplus  growth  of  the  hoof,  whether 
•at  the  toe  or  the  heels  or  the  sides  of  the  foot,  will  cause 
the  horse  to  point  with  //is  foot  in  the  direction  of  the  ele- 
vated portion  of  the  foot.  Whether  it  be  with  the  toe  of 
the  hoof  or  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  he  will  invariably  point 
in  that  direction. 

Correspondingly,  if  the  heels  of  the  fore  foot  or  of  the 
shoe  be  too  high  he  will  just  as  invariably  point  or  stand 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  I  5 

"back  under  himself,  which  is  pointing  in  the  direction  of 
the  high  heels. 

Again,  if  too  high  on  the  outside  of  the  hoof,  whether 
it  be  from  the  foot  or  the  shoe,  or  from  both  combined, 
•he  will  extend  his  limb  out  sideways  in  order  to  gain 
relief  from  pain  caused  by  his  unbalanced  foot,  always 
remembering  that  he  points  in  the  direction  of  the  ele- 
vated part  of  the  foot. 

Similarly  undue  height  of  the  hoof  or  of  the  shoe, 
or  of  both  combined,  on  the  inside  portion  of  the  foot  will 
■cause  the  horse  to  cross  his  legs,  by  putting  one  foot  in 
front  of  or  behind  the  other.  These  various  positions 
•of  standing  are  all  symptoms  of  loss  of  balance,  and  if 
not  rectified  in  time  are  conducive  to  further  troubles, 
■and  lameness  is  the  usual  result. 

This  of  itself  should  be  proof  enough  of  the  impor- 
tance of  knowing  what  is  good  form  for  a  horse's  foot,  and 
also  of  restoring  this  good  form.  These  deviations  are 
the  first  causes  of  the  multitude  of  infirmities  to  which 
the  foot  and  leg  of  the  horse  are  perpetually  liable  from 
■an  unbalanced  hoof.  A  perfectly  balanced  foot  means 
perfect  rest  while  standing  and  perfectly  free  and  easy 
movements  while  in  motion. 

Equilibrium  Essential. 

5.  The  equilibrium  of  the  horse  is  solely  dependent 
upon  the  condition  of  his  feet.  If  his  feet  are  in  such  a 
shape  as  to  compel  him  to  point  in  any  direction  for  re- 
lief, either  with  one  or  more  feet,  he  must  certainly  be 
off  his  physical  balance,  in  proportion  to  the  degree  or  the 
intensity  of  the  primary  cause. 

Horny  Feet  and  Fleshy  Feet. 

6.  It  has  often  occurred  to  me  that  fleshy-footed  ani- 
mals, that  is  to  say,  those  whose  feet  mature  with  the 
growth  of  their  bodies,  such  as  the  elephant,  the  camel, 


16  THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE. 

and  the  dog,  seem  to  enjoy  an  absolute  immunity  from 
diseases  of  the  foot  and  leg  except  those  which  arise  from 
accidental  circumstances,  while  the  feet  of  the  horse  are 
the  very  fountain-head  of  his  miseries.  The  reasons 
for  this  can  be  easily  understood  when  we  remember 
that  the  feet  of  fleshy-footed  animals,  as  I  said  before, 
mature  with  the  growth  of  their  bodies,  and  therefore 
are  not  subject  to  changes  by  growth  as  are  the  feet  of 
horses 

Why  Fleshy-Footed  Animals  Do  Not  Point. 

7.  These  feet  grow  to  a  size  in  proportion  to  the 
body  of  the  animal  and  no  larger,  and  they  undergo  no 
change  in  formation  or  symmetry  from  their  birth  until 
death.  Their  weight  is  carried  on  lines  of  bearing  which 
are  terminated  by  a  cushion  in  the  shape  of  a  hemisphere 
or  half -ball.  This  form  of  the  cushion  enables  it  to  rock 
over  easily,  and  its  elastic  properties  cause  its  adapta- 
tion to  every  inequality  of  surface  it  has  to  travel  upon. 
This  accounts  for  their  not  pointing  or  resting  first  on 
one  foot  and  then  another,  and  for  their  standing  always, 
unlike  the  horse,  with  the  axes  of  their  legs  parallel  to 
each  other.  There  is  an  apparent  but  not  real  exception 
to  this  rule  in  the  pointer  dog;  he  points,  but  his  point- 
ing has  nothing  to  do  with  the  structure  of  his  limbs. 

More  Points  on  Pointing. 

8.  I  have  described  four  different  positions  in  which 
the  horse  may  find  relief,  by  extending  his  limb,  from, 
pain  produced  by  an  unbalanced  hoof  or  foot.  Those 
four  positions  would  form  four  right  angles,  but  as  this; 
does  not  describe  all  the  positions  in  which  he  can  stand 
to  gain  relief,  I  will  supplement  them  with  four  more. 
These  eight  points  will  describe  an  octagon,  each  angle 
being    one   of  22^   degrees.     The    rule  is  to   be    con- 


THE   FOOT   OF  THE   HORSE.  If 

stantly  borne  in  mind  and  it  will  be  frequently  repeated 
that  when  there  is  an  undue  elevation  of  the  foot  at 
any  one  of  these  eight  points,  the  foot  will  invariably 
be  pointed  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the  undue 
elevation  itself.  Thus  the  horse  himself  always  points 
to  the  seat  of  the  trouble  with  his  own  finger  as  it 
were,  and  enables  you  to  locate  it  with  ease  and  abso- 
lute certainty. 

Explanation  of  the  Chart  on  Pointing. 

9.  A  fuller  explanation  of  pointing  will  now  be  given 
(see  the  chart  on  pointing). 

It  may  be  observed  that  a  horse  may  point  with  his 
foot  in  any  direction  of  the  mariner's  compass,  but  for 
all  practical  purposes  they  can  be  reduced  to  eight. 

1.  The  inside  heel  of  the  hoof  or  the  shoe,  or  both 
combined,  being  too  high,  the  leg  will  be  pointed  back- 
ward and  inward  (see  Cut  9,  Fig.   1). 

2.  Both  heels  of  foot  or  shoe,  or  both  combined, 
being  too  high  will  cause  the  leg  to  be  pointed  directly 
backward  (see  Cut  9,  Fig.  8). 

3.  Outside  heel  bei,;g  too  high  will  cause  the  leg  to 
be  pointed  backward  and  outward  toward  Fig.  7,  Cut  9. 

4.  Midway  outside  being  too  high,  the  pointing  will 
be  straight  outwardly  towar/1  Fig.  6. 

5.  Outside  toe  being  too  high,  the  pointing  will  be 
forward  and  outward  toward  Fig.  5 . 

6.  Middle  of  the  toe  being  too  high  will  cause  the 
pointing  to  be  directly  forward  toward  Fig.  4. 

7.  Inside  toe  being  too  high,  the  pointing  will  be  for- 
ward and  inward  toward  Fig.  3. 

8.  High  midway  inside  will  cause  the  pointing  in- 
ward toward  Fig.  2,  but  as  there  may  not  be  space 
enough  between  the  two  limbs,  he  may  have,  as  said  be- 
fore, to  cross  his  legs,  by  placing  one  foot  either  behind 


1 8  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

or  before  the  other  to  find  relief.  This  completes  the 
octagonal  circuit  of  the  foot.  These  eight  points  will 
be  sufficient  to  explain  the  rule  that  I  wish  to  enforce 
very  strongly,  namely,  that  the  horse  ahvays  points  to  the 
exact  location  or  scat  of  his  trouble. 

More  About  Pointing. 

10.  These  various  positions  do  not  apply  to  one  foot 
alone,  as  we  frequently  see  horses  pointing  with  both 
fore  feet  simultaneously  in  any  of  these  various  direc- 
tions and  with  the  hind  feet  as  well. 

Horses  with  both  fore  feet  elevated  at  the  toes  will 
stretch  or  point  forward  with  both  feet  in  order  to  gain 
relief,  and  in  stretching  forward  with  the  fore  feet  they 
are  compelled  to  stretch  backward  with  the  hind  ones  in 
order  to  brace  themselves  against  falling  backward.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  both  fore  feet  are  too  high  at  the 
heels,  they  will  get  into  a  position  the  exact  opposite  of 
that  in  which  they  stand  when  their  toes  are  too  high ; 
that  is  to  say,  they  will  place  their  fore  legs  backward 
and  their  hind  legs  forward  in  order  to  prevent  them- 
selves from  falling  forward.  Some  sapient  horsemen 
regard  this  position  as  "  speedy  sign, "  not  knowing  that 
the  poor  animal,  prompted  by  natural  instinct,  finds 
that  position  its  only  relief  from  pain. 

Toeing  In  and  Toeing  Out. 

ii.  When  high  at  both  outside  heels,  the  heels  are 
turned  outwardly  and  the  toes  inwardly ;  this  is  termed 
toeing  in;  when  high  at  the  inside  heels,  the  heels  will  be 
drawn  toward  each  other,  causing  an  outward  direction 
to  the  toes ;  and  this  is  called  toeing  out.  This  will  also 
cause  him  to  point  with  his  hind  foot  forward  of  a  verti- 
cal line  at  an  angle  the  opposite  of  that  of  the  forward 
feet,  in  order  to  balance  himself.     If  he  were  to  stand 


1HE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  1 9 

back  with  his  fore  feet  and  naturally  upon  his  hind  ones 
he  would  fall  forward  upon  his  head.  High  midway  out- 
side with  both  feet  will  cause  him  to  point  straight  out- 
wardly with  both  feet  at  the  same  time,  a  position  called 
straddling.  This  position  leaves  a  space  between  the 
limbs  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  outside  por- 
tion of  the  foot.  When  too  high  at  the  outside  toes  he 
will  point  in  an  outward  direction  with  both  feet.  Some- 
times he  will  rest  them  alternately  in  all  these  various 
positions.  Too  high  at  both  inside  toes,  he  will  point 
inward  and  forward,  bringing  his  toes  together  and 
leaving  a  space  between  the  heels.  This  also  produces 
the  condition  toeing  in. 

When  too  high  midway  inside  he  will  bring  both 
feet  together,  and  in  order  to  brace  himself  he  will  stand 
with  his  hind  feet  and  limbs  wide  apart. 

Results  of  Overgrowth  of  Hoof. 

12.  We  have  now  described  all  the  various  positions 
in  which  a  horse  can  stand  or  travel,  caused  by  an  ab- 
normal growth  of  hoof. 

It  may  be  asked  why  the  horse  should  be  so  easily 
affected  by  the  inequalities  of  bearing  upon  the  bottom 
surface  of  his  foot.  This  question  may  be  suggested 
by  the  fact  that  he  may  go  apparently  sound  while  in 
motion,  the  action  of  his  limbs  being  perfectly  uniform, 
and  nothing  be  observable  to  indicate  any  serious  trouble, 
and  yet  after  a  drive  or  when  standing  he  may  assume 
one  or  more  of  those  positions  we  have  described.  The 
answer  to  this  question  will  soon  appear. 

A  Perfect  Balance  Important. 

13.  I  am  perfectly  convinced  that  when  a  horse  en- 
joys his  proper  balance  he  will  stand  well  and  stand  at 
ease  all  the  time.     He  will  not  stretch  out  nor  assume 


20  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

any  of  those  positions,  nor  persist  in  maintaining  them 
if  he  should  assume  any  of  them  temporarily.  He  may 
after  a  hard  drive  rest  one  hind  foot  and  one  forward 
foot  alternately,  with  the  other  two  feet  well  under  him ; 
but  when  this  is  the  result  of  mere  fatigue  it  soon  passes 
away. 

Occasionally  a  horse  may  be  observed  standing  in  the 
stable,  resting  diagonally  upon  one  fore  and  one  hind 
foot ;  this  is  done  to  relieve  a  pain  in  the  back  from  a  twist 
which  is  occasioned  by  the  weight  of  one  quarter  being 
unsupported  when  he  points  but  one  affected  leg. 

A  Little  More  Anatomy. 

14.  A  horse  constantly  standing  in  one  of  the  posi- 
tions referred  to  gives  evidence  of  some  obscure  trouble. 
In  paragraph  2  I  made  mention  of  three  bones,  the 
pedal,  the  coronary,  and  the  navicular  bones.  As  al- 
ready stated,  the  pedal  bone  is  suspended  by  laminae  to 
the  interior  surface  of  the  hoof.  Resting  upon  the  pedal 
bone  is  the  coronary  bone,  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
navicular  bone  those  bones  form  a  joint  called  the  pedal 
joint. 

The  Pyramid  of  the  Pedal  Bone. 

1 5 .  The  part  which  the  pedal  bone  plays  in  the  econ- 
omy of  the  foot  justifies  this  brief  description  of  its  pe- 
culiar construction.  There  is  no  other  bone  like  it  in 
the  whole  system  of  the  horse.  Notice  the  peculiar  ele- 
vation of  its  highest  part,  which  is  called  its  pyramidal 
process,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  pyramid.  Its  highest 
point  will  often  be  referred  to  as  the  apex  of  the  pedal 
bone.  This  bone  has  a  remarkably  large  extent  of  ar- 
ticulating surface  which  admits  of  a  sweep  of  movement 
extending  through  nearly  half  a  circle.  It  should  be 
noted  also  that  this  joint  is  formed  on  the  principle  of 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  2  1 

the  common  hinge,  which  admits  of  motion  only  in  two 
directions,  and  that  therefore  it  has  no  lateral  or  one- 
sided motion.  The  importance  of  these  points  of  con- 
struction will  be  seen  later  on. 

1 6.  We  will  now  refer  to  Cut  i,  a,  to  show  what  con- 
stitutes a  sound  horse  with  perfectly  balanced  feet  where- 
in the  horny  fibres  at  the  heels  grow  in  the  same  ratio  as 
at  the  toes;  that  is  to  say,  where  the  growth  of  the  entire 
hoof  is  equally  distributed  as  shown  by  the  parallel  lines 
of  the  outer  fibrous  structure  running  from  the  coronet 
to  the  base  of  the  foot,  h,  h. 

Above  the  lines/,  /  is  shown  a  foot  of  just  propor- 
tions, just  as  nature  designed  it. 

The  lines  g,  g  show  that  the  heels  by  mere  growth. 
are  advancing  toward  the  centre  of  the  column ;  and  the 
lines  h,  h  indicate  that  this  natural  and  necessary  growth 
has  carried  the  toe,  and  therefore  its  bearing  point,  consid- 
erably beyond  the  true  point  of  bearing. 

Ridges  Upon  the  Hoof. 

17.  Still  refer  to  Cut  1.  The  lines  /,  /  determine 
the  natural  height  of  the  hoof.  The  vertical  line  at  let- 
ter e  divides  the  length  of  the  foot  into  two  equal  parts 
when  of  the  proper  height. 

The  ridges  circumscribing  the  hoof  should  be  at  an 
equal  distance  apart  all  round,  or  in  lines  parallel  with 
each  other  as  shown  in  Cut  7. 

The  highest  part  of  the  foot  is  indicated  by  the  wid- 
est space  between  those  ridges. 

Letters/,  /and  line  e  indicate  a  uniform  foot,  what 
ever  may  be  its  particular  formation. 

Now  that  we  have  a  perfect  hoof  in  its  different 
phases,  the  pedal  bone  within  it,  attached  by  laminae  in 
its  proper  position,  will  also  be  perfectly  balanced,  as  it 
is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  duplicate  of  the  hoof  in 


22  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

a  miniature  form.  Having  a  well-balanced  foundation 
the  next  bone  above  it  will  be  in  its  proper  place  at  its 
natural  angle,  so  that  the  axes  of  both  bones  will  come 
together  as  shown  in  Cut  i ,  letter  i. 

This  conjunction  of  bones  forms  the  basis  of  all  the 
movements  of  the  limbs,  which  will  be  fully  explained 
hereafter,  but  is  referred  to  here  to  show  that  while 
these  bones  preserve  their  just  relation  to  each  other, 
that  is,  that  their  axes  of  bearing  perfectly  coincide,  the 
horse  will  not  place  his  leg  forward  or  backward  of  the 
vertical  line. 

Perfect  Equilibrium  Necessary. 

1 8.  We  frequently  see  feet  on  which  the  hoof  has 
been  allowed  to  grow  to  the  length  of  two  inches  or 
more.  Now,  suppose  a  case  in  which  the  point  of  bearing 
from  growth  is  two  inches  beyond  its  natural  point  of 
bearing,  then  a  vertical  line  e,  e  from  the  true  centre  at 
the  bottom  of  the  coronary  bone  will  fall  close  to  the 
point  of  bearing  near  the  heels,  instead  of  falling  to  the 
centre  of  the  foot,  and  the  toe  would  be  correspondingly 
forward  of  the  same  vertical  line  (see  Cut  i ,  letter  e). 

It  is  a  necessary  inference  from  these  considerations- 
that  in  proportion  to  the  change  of  base,  be  it  little  or 
much,  whether  by  growth  of  hoof  or  the  application  of 
a  shoe,  so  will  be  the  danger  to  the  structures  carried 
upon  that  base.  In  other  words,  the  normal  conditions 
of  the  foot  and  leg  and  harmony  of  movement  while  in 
motion  depend  absolutely  upon  the  perfect  equilibrium 
of  the  foot. 

How  Long  Will  a  Perfect  Foot  Keep  Perfect  ? 

19.  Now  that  we  have  described  a  perfect  balanced' 
foot  and  in  what  it  consists,  the  question  may  arise,, 
how  longf  will  it  remain  in  this  condition?     I  answer,. 


THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  23 

just  as  long  as  it  undergoes  no  changes  either  laterally, 
lengthwise,  or  in  height  from  the  coronet  to  the  base  of 
the  foot.  To  demonstrate  this  view,  take  a  column,  say 
of  wood,  and  four  feet  long,  about  the  length  of  a  horse's 
leg.  Bevel  one  end  of  it  at  an  angle  of  fifteen  degrees 
and  stand  it  upon  the  bevelled  end,  and  the  column  will 
adapt  itself  to  this  bevel  or  angle  by  the  upper  end  lean- 
ing over  in  any  direction  corresponding  to  the  angle  of 
its  bevel  (see  Cuts  14,  15,  and  16).  In  the  horse  the 
upper  end  of  the  column  is  fixed,  and  the  lower  end  be- 
ing movable  it  is  swung  in  the  direction  of  the  highest 
part  of  the  bevel,  in  order  to  find  if  possible  an  even 
bearing  upon  the  ground,  and  by  that  means  to  keep  the 
bones  of  the  pedal  joint  in  their  just  relations  to  each 
other.  This  action  of  the  horse  is  called  pointing.  We 
may  further  remark  that  if  the  outside  half  of  the  hoof 
be  higher  than  the  inside  half,  or  vice  versa,  the  horse, 
in  order  to  keep  his  limb  in  a  vertical  line,  would  have 
to  carry  his  weight  upon  one  side  or  the  other,  as  there 
is  no  sideway  action  of  the  pedal  joint. 

The  Leg  a  Pendulum. 

20.  In  a  well-balanced  foot  the  articulation  of  the 
pedal  joint  is  limited  to  a  given  space  which  is  equally 
divided  anteriorly  and  posteriorly,  so  that  when  the  limb 
is  in  motion  it  can  reach  as  far  one  way  as  the  other,  like 
the  pendulum  of  a  clock  that  swings  to  an  equal  distance 
both  ways.     Now 

Unbalancing  the  Pedal  Bone 

21.  By  raising  the  toe  or  the  heels  would  have  the 
effect  of  limiting  or  blocking  the  forward  or  backward 
movements  of  the  limb.  For  example,  if  we  elevate  the 
toe  unduly  the  apex  of  the  pedal  bone  will  press  against 


24  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

the  anterior  surface  of  the  coronary  bone,  which  is  foh 
lowed  or  accompanied  by  the  end  of  the  coronary  bone, 
pressing  with  undue  force  upon  the  navicular  bone  and 
the  perforans  tendon  which  Ires  immediately  at  the  back 
of  it,  and  a  shock  and  limited  action  are  the  result.  This 
will  prevent  the  horse  from  getting  the  foot  back  under 
his  body  while  progressing.  When  the  heels  are  raised 
the  tendency  of  this  condition  is  to  throw  undue  strain 
upon  the  extensor  pedis  at  the  apex  of  the  pedal  bone, 
thereby  overtaxing  the  suspensory  ligaments  from  the 
opposite  direction. 

The  Pedal  Joint  a  Common  Hinge  Joint. 

22.  In  order  to  emphasize  an  important  fact  in  this 
■connection  I  will  again  briefly  describe  this  joint.  It 
works  exactly  like  a  common  hinge,  having  no  side  mo- 
tion whatever.  It  follows  from  this  that  if  any  undue 
elevation  at  any  part  of  the  hoof  takes  place  by  abnormal 
growth  of  horn  or  any  other  cause,  there  will  be  a  dis- 
tortion of  the  pedal  joint,  and  in  order  to  ease  the  pain 
occasioned  by  the  distortion  the  horse  would  try  to  get 
an  even  bearing  of  the  joint  by  pointing  with  his  foot  in 
the  direction  of  the  most  elevated  part,  and  thus  distrib- 
ute the  bearing  evenly  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  joint  by 
bringing  the  axes  of  bearing  of  the  coronary  and  pedal 
bones  together,  as  seen  in  Cut  i ,  letter  i.  Hence,  the 
primary  cause  of  pointing  is  an  unbalanced  pedal  joint, 
which  may  proceed  from  the  elevation  of  any  other  part 
of  the  foot  as  well  as  from  a  raised  toe,  for  the  reason 
that  there  is  no  other  limit  to  the  rotation  of  the  coro- 
nary bone  posteriorly  than  the  resistance  afforded  by  the 
extensor  tendon  at  the  apex  of  the  pedal  bone.  In  both 
cases  supposed  we  should  have  shock  and  limited  action 
while  the  animal  is  in  motion. 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  2$ 


Pointing  During  Motion. 

23.  The  incidence  or  fall  of  the  foot  while  the  horse 
is  progressing  forward  will  also  be  directed  toward  the 
various  positions  that  the  foot  assumes  while  standing. 
When  too  high  at  the  toe  he  will  travel  short  and  in 
advance  of  his  chest,  not  bringing  his  limbs  back  past  a 
perpendicular  line,  as  it  would  separate  the  axis  of  the 
coronary  bone  posteriorly  from  the  axis  of  the  pedal 
bone  and  throw  the  apex  of  the  last-named  bone  against 
the  coronary  bone  (see  Cut  4,  letter  a)  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  to  cause  pain  to  the  animal,  and,  vice  versa,  too 
high  an  elevation  of  the  heels  would  have  the  opposite 
effect,  which  is  to  separate  the  axis  of  the  coronary  bone 
from  that  of  the  pedal  bone  anteriorly  as  seen  at  Cut  3, 
letter  a,  thus  blocking  the  articulation  backward.  In 
this  case  the  horse  will  not  extend  his  limb  forward  of 
his  chest  while  progressing  slowly,  and  still  less  when 
moving  with  greater  speed,  as  the  incidence  of  the  foot 
will  be  forced  in  a  more  vertical  direction,  being  more 
directly  under  the  shoulder,  and  the  step  will  be  finished 
too  far  back  under  the  body. 


Wrenching  the  Pedal  Joint. 

24.  When  high  outside  the  inclination  of  the  fall  of 
'the  foot  will  be  outwardly,  as  there  is  no  lateral  motion 
or  action  of  the  pedal  joint.  If  the  limb  were  thrown 
straight  forward,  the  whole  weight  of  the  animal  would 
be  thrown  upon  the  highest  part  of  the  hoof,  causing  a 
great  distortion  or  wrenching,  of  the  pedal  joint,  and  also 
a  straining  of  the  ligaments  which  surround  that  joint. 
The  same  effects  would  be  observed  if  the  undue  eleva- 
tion of  the  foot  were  upon  the  opposite  side. 


26  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 


Essential  Knowledge. 

25.  Notwithstanding  that  I  have  given  the  causes  of 
horses'  pointing  in  various  directions  and  also  how  they 
adapt  their  gaits  correspondingly,  it  is  very  essential  to 
know  the  cause  of  the  elevation  or  the  increased  growth 
at  these  eight  different  points.  It  has  already  been 
mentioned  that  the  fibrous  structure  of  the  hoof  from 
the  coronet  down  to  the  base  of  the  foot,  as  seen  in  Cut 
1 ,  and  also  the  ridges  circumscribing  the  hoof  as  seen 
in  Cut  7,  should  be  uniform  in  growth,  that  is  to  say,, 
that  the  fibres  should  grow  at  an  even  distance  apart  in 
lines  parallel  to  each  other,  as  far  as  they  extend,  in 
order  to  constitute  a  sound  and  well-balanced  foot.  It. 
is  nothing  unusual  to  find  horses  with  those  ridges  devi- 
ating at  various  points  all  around  the  hoof,  coming  close 
together  in  places,  then  running  apart,  leaving  quite  a. 
space  between  themselves  at  another  point,  the  latter 
indicating  a  surplus  and  the  former  a  deficiency  of 
growth.  At  the  point  where  the  lines  are  farthest  apart 
the  hoof  always  grows  faster,  and  therefore  always  the 
highest,  and  where  the  ridges  come  close  together  the 
hoof  is  invariably  the  lowest.  So  it  is  very  evident  that 
without  the  knowledge  of  this  peculiarity  in  the  growth 
of  feet  it  will  be  impossible  to  pare  them  so  a.,  10  prop- 
erly balance  the  pedal  bone  and  the  pedal  joint. 

Great  Irregularities  of  Growth. 

26.  I  may  remark  that  I  have  treated  horses  with 
such  vast  irregularities  of  growth  as  to  necessitate  an 
artificial  appliance  in  order  to  balance  the  foot,  and  to 
give  the  joint  which  may  be  distorted  by  an  abnormal 
growth  of  hoof  a  free  and  natural  articulation.  This 
will  be  referred  to  again  later  on. 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  2J 


Different  Forms  of  Feet. 


27.  The  cuts  will  represent  different  forms  of  horses' 
feet,  as  well  as  the  various  shapes  they  are  liable  to  ac- 
quire under  different  circumstances.  These  drawings 
will  show  that  when  the  feet  resemble  any  of  these  eight 
cuts  they  are  liable  to  acquire  ailments  peculiar  to  their 
formation.  In  other  words,  all  feet  of  the  same  forma- 
tion are  subject  to  the  same  class  of  ailments,  and  there- 
fore can  be  submitted  to  the  same  remedial  measures  of 
treatment,  and  when  in  motion  their  articulations  will 
be  affected  in  the  same  way. 

Objects  Made  Alike  Perform  Alike. 

28.  I  have  frequently  observed  that  all  objects  in 
creation  which  are  made  alike  perform  alike.  It  is  cer- 
tainly so  with  machinery ;  when  of  the  same  construction 
it  works  alike.  It  is  equally  true,  I  think,  of  living  be- 
ings. Take  for  example  the  different  species  of  animals 
in  a  profile  view,  and  any  one  will  arrive  at  the  same  con- 
clusion that  all  animals  of  the  same  formation  will  act 
alike.  To  prove  this  theory  to  be  correct,  compare  the 
build  of  the  Newfoundland  dog  with  that  of  the  grey- 
hound ;  the  former's  build  is  best  adapted  for  slowness, 
and  the  latter's  for  speed..  So  that  when  this  rule  fails 
to  work  among  certain  animals  we  must  not  condemn 
the  rule.  In  machinery  when  a  certain  part  gives  way, 
by  restoring  the  duplicate  of  what  gives  way  the  work 
goes  on  just  the  same  as  before. 

The  Missing  Link. 

29.  In  like  manner  when  the  mechanical  construc- 
tion of  the  horse's  foot  is  fully  understood  there  will  be 
very  little  difficulty  in  the  application  of  the  remedy. 


2$   ■  THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE. 

It  is  when  we  fail  to  discover  the  part  of  the  machine 
that  is  missing,  or  when  we  make  the  wrong  appliance, 
that  the  living  machinery  of  the  horse's  leg  fails  to 
work.  The  principle,  however,  is  right,  for  when,  after 
making  different  trials,  I  supply  just  what  is  wanted, 
the  horse  tells  me  in  his  own  language,  improved  action, 
that  the  tnissing  link  has  been  found. 


Intimate  Connections  of  Pedal  Bone  and  Hoof. 

30.  As  said  before  but  cannot  be  too  strongly  en- 
forced, the  pedal  bone  and  hoof  are  so  intimately  con- 
nected that  the  effect  of  any  disproportion  of  the  hoof 
must  be  transmitted  to  the  pedal  bone. 

The  column  of  bone  constituting  the  leg  has  been 
described  as  braced  by  a  number  of  tendons  and  liga- 
ments, the  most  powerful  of  which  have  their  termina- 
tion in  the  small  pastern  and  pedal  bones,  which  with 
the  navicular  bone  form  this  important  joint,  so  that  it 
is  manifest  that  any  effects  transmitted  to  the  pedal  bone, 
by  any  form  or  changes  in  form  of  the  hoof,  are  also 
transmitted  to  the  pedal  joint  and  to  the  tendons  and 
ligaments  with  which  it  is  connected. 

Chart  of  the  Foot. 

31.  It  will  be  remembered  that  all  the  deformities 
of  the  foot,  as  far  as  perceivable,  have  been  traced  to 
eight  different  parts  around  the  circumference  of  the 
foot  as  seen  in  Cut  9.  I  wish  to  state  now  most  em- 
phatically that  to  those  eight  points  of  division,  whether 
they  be  too  high  or  too  low  at  either  point — as  also  that 
the  lower  circumference  of  the  foot  being  out  of  just 
proportion,  by  which  I  mean  that  the  foot  may  be  out 
of  just  proportion  in  length  as  well  as  width — I  repeat 
that  to  these  eight  points  of  division   of  inequalities  of 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  29. 

height  and  to  that  unequal  circumference  I  attribute  the 
primary  causes  of  all  the  ailments  incidental  to  horses' 
feet  which  are  referred  to  in  this  book. 


Professor  Williams  and  Navicular  Disease. 

32.  In  our  discussions  as  to  the  cause  or  causes  of 
navicular  disease  I  feel  sure  that  it  is  perfectly  allowa- 
ble to  refer  to  the  views  which  have  been  expressed  by 
the  most  recent  writers  upon  this  subject.  Professor 
Williams'  work  on  the  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Vet- 
erinary Surgery  "  I  presume  may  be  considered  to  be 
the  best  work  of  its  kind  at  the  present  time,  as  it  is  used 
as  a  text-book,  I  am  informed,  in  several  veterinary  col- 
leges in  this  country. 

"Rheumatoid  Diathesis." 

33.  This  means  an  inherited  tendency  to  a  disease 
resembling  rheumatism.  On  page  337  of  the  work  just 
referred  to,  the  author  assigns  as  the  chief  cause  of  na- 
vicular disease  a  rheumatoid  diathesis,  and  concussion  as  a 
secondary  or  proximate  cause.  The  author  also  informs 
us  that  many  able  writers  held  widely  different  views  as 
to  its  primary  causes.  What  they  held  to  be  primary- 
causes  I  deem  to  be  but  secondary. 

Sprain  and  Compression. 

34.  We  regret  having  to  take  issue  with  so  distin- 
guished a  writer  as  Professor  Williams,  but  in  the  in- 
terests of  truth  and  progress  in  correct  veterinary  knowl- 
edge and  science  as  regards  foot  diseases,  we  enter  the 
lists  with  confidence.  We  dissent  from  the  opinion  that 
the  rheumatoid-diathesis-concussion  theory  affords  a  suffi- 
cient explanation  of  the  origin  of  navicular  disease.  We 
have  treated  all  kinds  of  obscure  ailments  of  the  pedal 


30  THE   FOOT    OF   THE   HORSE. 

joint  during  the  last  forty-five  years,  and  our  earliest  the- 
ory as  to  its  cause  or  causes— ^that  is,  that  navicular  disease 
is  due  to  sprain  and  compression,  sprains  of  ligaments 
and  tendons  and  compression  of  bones,  and  during  that 
time  we  have  never  seen  any  reason  to  modify  that  view ; 
on  the  contrary  our  experience  has  been  such  as  to  con- 
firm it  in  the  highest  degree.  Robert  Bonner  agrees 
with  me. 

%" Facts  are  Stubborn  Things." 

3  5 .  When  you  know  how  to  counteract  or  prevent  a 
certain  disease  in  every  instance,  and  when  you  know 
also  how  to  .cure  it  where  it  exists,  and  to  prevent  its 
return,  I  think  you  are  not  very  far  from  knowing  some- 
thing about  its  cause.  I  deem  that  I  am  justified  in 
saying  that  my  theory  as  to  sprains  and  concussion  being 
the  main  and  common  causes  of  foot  diseases  of  the 
horse  can  be  sustained  by  the  strongest  evidence  that  I 
know  of — facts  of  observation,  facts  of  practice,  and  facts 
of  demonstration,  and  if  there  is  any  other  criterion  by 
which  the  truth  of  my  theory  can  be  judged,  I  should 
like  to  be  informed  of  it.  A  fuller  explanation  of  my 
theory  will  be  given  as  we  proceed.     If 

The  Rheumatoid  Theory 

36.  Of  Professor  Williams  is  a  correct  one,  why  is  it 
the  hind  limbs  are  not  affected  as  well  as  the  fore  ones, 
since  rheumatism  and  presumably  rheumatoid  diseases 
are  shifting  in  their  character,  and  in  human  experience 
are  not  partial  as  to  which  extremity  they  attack? 

Relative  Advantages  of  Position  of  Fore  and 
Hind  Limbs. 

37.  As  helping  to  throw  light  upon  the  causes  of 
navicular  disease,  it  will  be  instructive  to  review  Pro- 
fessor Williams'  position  on  the  above  interesting  ques- 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  3 1 

tion.  It  was  stated  by  that  gentleman  himself,  and  as 
he  could  not  answer  it  to  his  own  satisfaction  I  will  en- 
deavor to  answer  it,  not  doubting  that  in  doing  so  I  shall 
convey  instruction  to  my  readers,  and  that  the  professor 
will  return  thanks  for  the  information  at  the  earliest 
.opportunity. 

The  following  are  the  two  positions  the  professor  has 
taken  upon  this  matter : 

i .  That  the  hind  limbs  are  less  favorably  placed  than 
the  fore  ones ;  and  that  therefore 

2.  The  hind  limbs  are  more  exposed  to  diseases  than 
the  fore  ones,  which  means  that  the  fore  limbs  are  more 
favorably  placed  than  the  hind  ones,  and  that  in  conse- 
quence the  fore  limbs  are  less  exposed  to  disease  than  the 
hind  ones. 


Disadvantages  of  Position  of  the  Fore  Legs. 

38.  I  hold  the  exact  opposite  of  the  professor's  propo- 
sitions to  be  the  truth,  for  the  following  reasons : 

1 .  The  fore  limbs  have  to  carry  about  two-thirds  of 
the  weight  of  the  whole  body,  while  the  hind  ones  have 
to  carry  but  about  one -third  of  that  weight,  and  I  would 
remark  in  passing  that  one  consequence  of  this  is  the 
increased  danger  that  arises  from  knuckling  in  the  fore 
extremities  over  that  from  the  hind  ones. 

2 .  There  is  a  lack  of  flexibility  in  the  fore  legs  be- 
tween the  body  and  the  fetlock  which  has  no  existence 
in  the  hind  extremities. 

Observe  that  when  the  fore  limbs  are  unfolded,  they 
form  a  rigid  and  inflexible  column  from  the  elbow  to  the 
fetlock.  Now  two-thirds  of  the  weight  of  the  animal 
having  to  be  sustained  and  carried  forward  by  these  two 
rigid  columns,  the  joints  below  the  knee  in  these  columns 
must  receive  a  greater  amount  of  strain  and  pressure 
than  the  hind  ones,  which  not  only  have  to  carry  but  one- 


32  THE    FOOT    OF   THE   HORSE. 

third  of  that  weight  but  which  enjoy  a  high  degree  of 
flexibility  as  well.  I  will  now  leave  these  considera- 
tions to  be  weighed  by  the  reader,  and  will  return  to  the 
subject  at  a  convenient  opportunity. 

Causes  of  Navicular  Disease. 

39.  It  has  been  acknowledged  by  different  authors 
that  height  and  length  of  the  toe  is  one  of  the  causes  of 
navicular  disease,  and  it  has  been  seen  that  this  cause 
will  produce  strain  and  sprain  of  the  perforans  tendon 
on  account  of  its  attachment  to  the  pedal  bone  in  its  un- 
der and  back  part,  and  though  recognizing  a  mechanical 
origin  for  this  disease  to  this  extent,  no  one  seems  to 
have  suggested  a  mechanical  remedy  except  the  stereo- 
typcd  recommendation,  lower  the  toes  and  pay  attention  to- 
the  shoeing. 

A  Natural  Gauge. 

40.  If  a  shoe  with  a  toe  calk  is  attached  to  the  hoof, 
the  calk  becomes  an  instrument,  or  gauge,  by  which  we 
can  determine  by  its  length  and  height  the  degree  of 
strain  or  rigidity  this  tendon  receives  at  each  finishing 
of  the  step.  It  will  be  found  that  the  shorter  and  lower 
the  toe  is  the  less  strain  there  will  be,  and  the  longer 
and  higher  the  toe  there  will  be  the  most  strain,  and. 
all  will  be  in  exact  proportion  to  the  height  and  length 
of  the  hoof  or  of  the  shoe,  or  of  both  combined,  when 
a  shoe  is  affixed  to  the  foot. 


Weight  Must  be  Carried. 

41.  It  should  be  remembered  that  when  the  fore  ex- 
tremities of  a  horse  become  diseased  he  is  not  relieved, 
from  the  necessity  of  carrying  weight.  His  pointing  en- 
ables him  to  relax  the  strain  upon  his  tendons  and  liga- 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  33 

ments,  but  his  weight  has  to  be  sustained  by  the  other 
tissues  just  as  much  as  if  his  feet  enjoyed  their  perfect 
balance. 

Ulceration  of  the  Navicular  Bone. 

42.  When  the  abnormality  of  a  horse's  foot  is  such 
that  relief  is  only  obtainable  with  his  fore  feet  back  un- 
der the  centre  of  his  body,  or  by  pointing  backward,  he 
will  have  to  carry  more  weight  while  in  that  position 
than  before,  so  that  while  relieving  the  existing  pain 
he  overtaxes  other  parts  of  the  pedal  joint,  and  fever 
being  usually  present  in  lameness,  the  synovial  fluid  of 
the  joint  becomes  absorbed,  dryness  and  friction  of  the 
articulating  surfaces  necessarily  result,  and  these  con- 
ditions I  have  no  doubt  will  account  in  some  degree  for 
the  condition  met  with  in  severe  cases  of  navicular  dis- 
ease called  caries,  or  ulceration  of  the  navicular  bone. 

The  Relative  Advantages  of  Position  of  Fore 
and  Hind  Limbs. 

43.  We  will  now  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  a 
few  more  facts  relative  to  the  above  question,  which 
throw  much  light  upon  the  origin  of  diseases  in  that 
obscure  region  of  the  economy  of  the  horse. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  fore  feet  are  subject  to  pecul- 
iar difficulties  in  formation  and  position,  considered  in 
their  relation  to  the  hinder  ones.  One  of  these  difficul- 
ties is  due  to  the  difference  between  the  inclinations  of 
the  fetlocks  of  both  fore  and  hind  limbs  from  the  vertical 
lined!  the  instant  each  step  is  finished.  As  said  before, 
the  knee  when  unfolded,  and  the  foot  is  planted  upon 
the  ground,  becomes  inflexible  while  carrying  weight, 
causing  more  strain  upon  the  pedal  joints  of  the  fore 
feet  than  upon  the  same  joints  of  the  hind  feet,  where 
the  hock  and  pastern  joints  are  so  formed  as  to  bend  and 
3 


34  THE    FOOT   OF   TIIK    HORSE. 

straighten  alternately  at  each  flexion  of  the  hoek  and 
fetlock  joint,  and  unlike  the  fore  pasterns  are  favored 
by  being-  allowed  to  retain  more  of  their  obliquity  at  the 
finishing  of  the  step,  whieh  obliquity  exempts  them 
from  many  troubles  to  whieh  the  fore  feet  are  liable  from 
the  much  greater  flexion  of  their  pasterns  ;  in  other  words, 
the  greater  flexion  of  the  hock  calls  for  less  flexion  of  the 
hind  pasterns,  while  the  lesser  flexion  of  the  knee  re- 
quires the  greater  flexion  of  the  fetlock. 

Relaxation  of  Tendons. 

44.  The  relaxation  of  tendons  is  produced  in  this 
manner:  At  the  time  that  the  hinder  legs  are  inclined 
baekward,  and  the  toe  is  about  leaving  the  ground,  the 
hoek  suddenly  straightens  and  relaxes  the  baek  tendons, 
thus  preserving  the  due  obliquity  of  the  pastern.  This 
relaxation  of  the  tendons  of  the  hind  pastern  allows  them 
to  remain  more  oblique  to  the  finishing  of  the  step  than 
the  pastern  of  the  forelegs;  and  for  that  reason  the 
former  are  less  liable  to  navicular  or  any  other  disease 
than  the  latter. 

Mobility  of  the  Hock  Joint. 

45.  We  may  further  observe  that  there  are  no  two 
bones  of  the  hinder  limbs  whieh  form  a  vertieal  and  in- 
flexible line  by  their  union ;  it  is  otherwise  in  the  fore 
limbs.  The  mobility  of  the  hoek  joint  is  constant,  and 
it  is  due  to  that  mobility,  and  to  not  having  to  carry  so 
much  weight  besides,  that  diseases  and  disabilities  are  so 
mueh  less  frequent  in  hind  legs  than  in  fore  ones. 

Hind  Limbs  Have  Greater  Facility  for  Rest. 

46.  My  reasons  for  believing  that  the  fore  limbs  are 
not  more  favorably  placed  than  the  hind  ones  are  not 
yet  exhausted.     Note  the  greater  facility  which  the  horse 


THE    FOOT    01    THE    HOE    I  35 

enjoys  for  rest  when  the  hinder  limbs  become  lame, 
as  they  can  be  so  easily  disburdened  from  weight  by 
simply  pointing  forward,  thus  throwing  a  greater  amount 

of  weight  upon  the  fore  legs. 

A  Lame  Horse  at  Grass. 

47.  Let  us  glance  at  the  horse  after  being  turned  out 
to  pick  up  his  own  living. 

Many  horses  have  a  short  neck,  and  when  his  natural 
formation  is  such  he  reaches  the  ground  with  difficulty 
while  grazing.  Observe  how  the  fore  extremities  will 
be  overtaxed  by  the  extra  weight  thrown  upon  them, 
which  otherwise  would  have  been  borne  by  the  hind 
feet.  The  fore  limbs  become  a  pivot,  almost  a  turning- 
point,  over  which  his  body  has  to  be  balanced  while 
grazing. 

Straddling  and  its  Consequences. 

48.  Sometimes  the  horse  straddles  to  accommodate 
himself  to  circumstances;  at  other  times  he  will  keep 
one  foot  far  back,  midway  under  his  body,  and  while  in 
that  position  that  foot  has  a  backward  angle,  and  is  car- 
rying more  than  its  due  share  of  weight,  and  the  strain 
upon  the  perforans  tendon  is  increased  always  in  pro- 
portion to  the  distance  of  the  leg  backward.  That  strain 
has  to  be  resisted  mainly  at  the  pedal  joint,  and  in  a 
lesser  degree  by  the  large  pastern  joint.  None  of  these 
conditions  occur  in  the  hind  feet,  where,  though  the  leg 
may  be  at  the  same  angle  backward  as  the  forward  one, 
the  pastern  remains  more  oblique,  thus  exerting  little 
or  no  pressure  upon  the  navicular  bone.  It  is  well  to 
remember  that  the  superincumbent  weight  thrown  on 
the  pedal  joint  of  the  fore  feet  is  not  the  only  factor  to 
be  considered,  it  is  the  lack  of  balance  and  due  propor- 
tion of  the    hoof  itself    while  carrying  weight,    which, 


36  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

owing  to  its  construction,  may  add  to  or  take  from  an 
equal  amount  of  strain  imposed  by  the  weight  of  the- 
animal  upon  these  joints. 

More  About  the  Pedal  Joint. 

49.  The  pedal  joint  has  many  aspects  from  which  it- 
may  be  considered.  We  are  now  able  to  study  its  rela- 
tions to  the  question  of  the  leverage  pressure  which  the 
navicular  bone  and  the  perforans  tendon  receive  under 
certain  conditions. 

A  Law  of  Nature. 

50.  Nature  has  laws  which  forbid  transgression,  and 
never  was  it  better  demonstrated  than  when  the  harmony 
of  the  parts  composing  the  pedal  joint  has  been  dis- 
turbed. The  horse  can  enjoy  neither  peace  nor  rest  if 
the  balance  of  his  foot  cannot  be  maintained.  The  sym- 
metry of  the  foot  is  represented  in  Cut  1 ,  at  and  above 
the  line  /,  /,  where  the  foot  has  been  supposed  to  be 
reduced  to  its  designed  height. 

When  this  reduction  of  hoof  is  to  its  due  lines  of 
proportion,  either  by  the  natural  wearing  away  of  the 
hoof  or  by  the  judicious  use  of  the  knife  and  rasp,  then, 
as  seen  in  the  same  cut  at  the  vertical  line  e,  e,  the  col- 
umns of  the  limbs  are  placed  where  they  should  be  and 
remain,  midway  between  the  heel  and  toe. 
♦ 
An  Interesting  Problem. 

5 1 .  Here  we  may  explain  why  it  is  that  horses  cannot 
exert  their  full  power  when  called  upon  to  start  a  heavy 
load,  if  their  toes  are  too  long.  They  are  forced  to  place 
their  legs  at  such  an  angle  backward  that  the  heels  can- 
not touch  the  ground,  and  as  a  consequence  they  get  up 
on  their  toes,  and  they  appear  to  exert  their  full  powers. 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  37 

"when  in  reality  they  do  not.  The  perforans  is  not  in  a 
position  to  exert  its  full  power,  having  no  support  under 
the  heels.  Such  a  support  is  necessary  in  their  great 
efforts  to  start  the  load,  for  the  combined  action  and  the 
exertion  of  the  full  powers  of  the  perforans,  the  perfo- 
ratus,  and  the  suspensory  ligament,  and  this  power  can- 
not be  supplied  for  such  occasions,  and  raising  the  heels 
would  be  a  disadvantage  as  soon  as  the  load  was  started, 
or  the  animal  drawing  a  lighter  load.  All  that  can  be 
done  in  such  a  case  is  to  keep  the  toe  as  short  as  possible 
and  the  heels  reasonably  high. 

An  Adverse  Force. 

52.  A  clear  idea  of  the  amount  of  force  which  a  horse 
has  to  overcome  when  in  progression,  through  undue 
extension  of  the  toe — and  let  it  be  remembered  that  the 
force  he  has  to  overcome  from  this  cause  is  the  exact 
equivalent  of  the  power  he  has  lost  in  overcoming  that 
force — may  be  gained  by  studying  the  following  little 
problem  in  mechanics. 

Suppose  we  were  to  disarticulate  a  well-balanced  foot 
at  the  pedal  joint  and  divide  it  equally  through  the  cen- 
tre from  toe  to  heel.  Three  points  on  that  section  would 
enable  you  to  construct  a  wedge-shaped  triangle.  The 
point  of  the  wedge  would  be  at  the  toe ;  the  other  two 
points,  one  would  be  at  the  centre  of  bearing  on  the 
highest  point  of  the  apex  (Cut  10,  letter  a),  and  the 
other  would  be  at  the  bottom  of  a  vertical  line  from 
that  centre  of  bearing  to  where  the  foot  touches  the 
ground  at  letter  k.  Now  suppose  that  the  distance  be- 
tween the  too  lower  points  was  three  inches :  it  will  be 
readily  seen  that  if  we  extend  the  line  at  the  toe  one 
inch,  we  shall  have  created  a  resisting  force  equal  to 
one-fourth  of  the  length  of  the  supposed  line,  and  this 
being  a  resisting  that  has  to  be  overcome,  it  will  be  the 


38  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

equivalent  of  the  power  which  the  horse  has  lost  in  the 
act  of  progression. 

Leverage  Power. 

53.  From  this  it  will  be  readily  perceived  how  by 
mere  extension  of  the  toe,  either  by  growth  or  by  the 
application  of  a  shoe,  or  by  both  combined,  the  leverage 
can  be  increased,  and  injurious  influences  exerted  upon 
the  pedal  joint  and  its  connections  the  navicular  bone 
and  the  perforans  immediately,  and  through  those  tissues 
to  the  other  component  of  the  leg  remotely.  It  will  be 
evident  that  undue  height  as  well  as  mere  extension  of 
the  toe  will  produce  an  adverse  leverage  pressure  upon 
the  perforans  and  navicular  bone,  particularly  in  a  ratio 
proportionate  to  the  elevation  and  length  of  the  toe. 
The  least  idea  we  can  gain  of  this  undue  length  and  ex- 
tension is  furnished  by  the  horse  himself,  who  always 
places  his  leg  or  legs  at  an  angle  proportionate  to  the 
elevation  or  extension. 

Difference  Between  Level  Extension  and 
Elevation. 

54.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  a  horse  knows  the 
difference  between  a  level  extension  of  the  toe  and  an 
elevation  at  the  same  part  of  the  foot.  With  a  perfectly 
level  foot,  although  the  toe  be  longer  he  can  stand  at 
ease  without  pointing;  he  only  feels  the  effects  of  a  long 
toe  while  in  progression.  With  an  elevated 'toe  standing 
or  moving,  he  is  incommoded  in  proportion  to  the  degree 
of  the  elevation,  and  he  shows  it  by  pointing  his  foot. 

Soft  Roads  and  Hard  Roads. 

55.  It  has  just  been  stated  that  height  of  toe  is  more 
injurious  than  mere  length  of  toe,  for  the  reason  that 
mere  length  of  toe  does  not  materially  change  the  bal- 
ance of  the  foot  while  standing.     The  axis  of  the  joint 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  3<> 

is  not  displaced  as  by  height  of  toe,  unless  it  is  by  stand- 
ing or  travelling  on  soft  ground,  like  sandy  roads  inter 
which  the  heels  would  sink,  and  the  toe  would  turn  up 
and  cause  strain  to  the  perforans  tendon.  A  horse  hav 
ing  extra  high  toes  is  always  placed  at  a  disadvantage 
on  hard  or  soft  roads,  and  can  find  no  rest  for  the  sole 
of  his  foot  until  the  bearings  of  his  feet  have  been  re- 
adjusted. 

A  Question  Answered. 

56.  Many  persons  wonder  why  it  is  that  after  a  three 
or  six  months'  run  at  grass  horses  are  often  worse  than 
when  they  were  turned  out.  This  has  been  partly  ex- 
plained already  (see  paragraphs  47  and  48),  but  will  bear 
a  little  further  explanation.  The  chief  reason  is  that 
many  horses  while  feeding  on  grass  have  not  the  time 
to  relieve  themselves  by  pointing  and  pick  up  their  living 
too.  To  relieve  themselves  from  pain  they  must  stop 
eating,  and  eating  only  aggravates  their  misery.  When 
both  feet  are  affected  he  cannot  reach  the  ground  with- 
out serious  inconvenience.  In  such  cases  they  are  com- 
pelled to  straddle,  and  such  a  position  produces  se- 
vere strains  upon  the  perforans  tendon  and  the  navicular 
bone. 

A  Suggestion  to  Professor  Williams. 

57.  I  think  I  have  shown  conclusively  that  Professor 
Williams  has  need  to  revise  his  observations  on  the 
causes  of  navicular  disease;  and  I  hope  that  he  will 
glean  a  little  information  from  my  observations  on  the 
relative  advantages  of  position  of  the  hind  and  fore  limbs 
as  regards  their  liability  to  diseases. 

The  Reason  Why. 

58.  I  think  it  is  clearly  due  to  the  disadvantages  of 
position  that  the  navicular  disease  is  so  much  more  fre- 
quent in  the  fore  than  in  the  hind  feet. 


40  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

When  we  consider  the  numerous  deformities  of  the 
fore  feet  as  compared  with  the  hinder  ones,  and  the 
consequences  in  sprains  of  tendons  and  compression  of 
bones,  and  various  peculiar  manifestations  of  disease, 
there  can  be  little  difficulty  in  arriving  at  a  just  conclu- 
sion as  to  relative  advantages  of  position  of  the  fore  and 
hind  feet,  and  that  the  latter  escape  many  ills  which  the 
fore  ones  endure. 


Causes  of  Navicular  Disease. 

59.  At  one  time  this  disease  was  supposed  to  exist 
in  the  shoulder,  as  the  horse  so  afflicted  would  move  in  a 
manner  indicating  stiffness  in  those  parts.  That  was 
only  the  usual  error  of  mistaking  effects  for  causes. 
Even  now  I  believe  not  only  in  England  but  in  this 
country  the  same  error  is  in  constant  repetition,  and 
setons  are  inserted  into  the  shoulder  when  the  lameness 
has  its  origin  in  the  foot. 


Professor  Williams  and  English  Notions. 

60.  By  reading  the  causes  and  remedies  for  navicu- 
lar disease,  it  will  be  noticed  that  they  disagree  very 
widely  in  their  theories  as  to  its  causes  and  the  proper 
treatment. 

We  believe  that  all  the  proximate  causes  of  this  dis- 
ease are  traceable  to  one  principal  cause,  and  that  is  an 
unbalanced  foot  in  some  form  or  other,  of  which  pointing 
is  an  infallible  sign. 

Pointing  or  extending  the  limb  in  advance  of  the 
chest  is  admitted  universally  by  veterinary  writers  to 
be  one  of  the  symptoms  accompanying  navicular  dis- 
ease. Constitutional  or  hereditary  causes  seem,  how- 
ever, to  be  more  in  favor  than  mechanical  ones. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  41 


Blocking  the  Pedal  Joint. 

61.  In  referring  to  a  high  toe  as  the  principal  cause 
of  this  disease,  and  remembering,  as  it  has  been  previ- 
ously mentioned,  that  the  pedal  bone  and  hoof  by  their 
union  constitute  the  foot,  the  toe  of  the  hoof  or  shoe 
being  unduly  elevated  the  pedal  bone  becomes  elevated 
correspondingly,  and  this  causes  a  blocking  or  pressing 
the  apex  of  the  pedal  bone  against  the  lower  pastern 
bone  as  seen  at  Cut  4,  letter  a,  causing  strains  of  the 
tendon  and  ligaments  of  the  pedal  joint  at  the  junction 
of  the  perforans  with  the  pedal  bone  (letter  d). 


Many  Ailments,  One  Remedy. 

62.  It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  one  remedy 
could  be  applied  for  different  ailments,  and  the  occasion 
for  proving  the  truth  of  this  statement  presents  itself 
right  here.  The  proof  is  simple  and  convincing  when 
the  different  diseases  are  enumerated  and  their  causes 
explained. 

Diseases  Produced  by  a  Too  High  Toe. 

63.  We  will  take  direct  height  of  toe  for  illustration, 
and  follow  the  many  localities  in  the  leg  which  can  be 
affected  by  a  too  high  toe. 

1 .  We  find  for  one  injured  part  the  joint  nearest  the 
deformed  hoof,  that  is  to  say,  the  pedal  joint,  which  is 
subject  to  navicular  disease. 

2.  The  lower  pastern  joint,  which  is  subject  to  ring- 
bone from  the  same  cause. 

3.  A  morbid  enlargement  of  the  soft  tissues  often 
seen  between  the  cavities  of  the  heels,  caused  mainly  by 
sprains  of  the  inferior  suspensory  ligament. 


42  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

4.  Knuckling  of  the  pastern. 

5.  Windgall  above  the  fetlock. 

6.  Sprain  of  the  perforans. 

7.  Knee  sprung,  or  curvature  of  the  knee. 

8.  Thoroughpin  above  the  knee,  corresponding  to  a 
blood  spavin  in  appearance  and  texture ;  its  location  be- 
ing usually  a  little  above  and  behind  the  knee,  in  some 
cases  appearing  on  the  inside  rather  than  exactly  be- 
hind. 

9.  A  bony  enlargement  often  to  be  seen  upon  the 
large  pastern  in  front  and  inclining  to  the  inside,  called 
high  ringbone. 

These  nine  ailments  are  all  produced  by  one  simple.- 
cause,  namely,  undue  height  of  toe. 

How  One  Cause  Produces  Many  Diseases. 

64.  Undue  height  or  length  of  toe,  or  both  combined,, 
I  consider  the  primary  cause  of  many  distinctly  diseased 
conditions,  such  as  sprains  and  enlargements  of  the  va- 
rious ligaments  and  tendons  of  the  leg,  bony  and  other- 
enlargements  connected  with  joints,  atrophy  or  wasting- 
of  various  tissues,  such  as  the  muscular  tissues  of  the 
shoulders  and  other  parts.  You  may  ask,  how  can  sprains, 
of  tendons  and  bony  and  bursal  enlargements  be  pro- 
duced by  one  simple  cause  such  as  you  have  mentioned? 
Because  the  perforans  tendon  when  subject  to  abnormal 
tension  by  undue  height  or  length  of  toe,  or  by  both 
combined,  and  also  through  accidental  or  false  stepping,, 
causes  a  compression  of  the  joints  directly  over  the  ele- 
vated part  right  down  or  up  the  front  of  the  leg,  as  well 
as  sprains  of  the  tendon  itself.  Any  prolonged  abnor- 
mal pressure  or  compression  of  the  joints  caused  by  an 
unbalanced  foot  must  inevitably  change  healthy  into 
diseased  conditions.  Hence,  diseased  action  in  bones 
produces  splints,  spavins,  and  ringbones,  and  small  or 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  43 

large  exostoses  anywhere  wherever  diseased  action  may- 
be set  up.     As  a  rule  they  occur  on  or  near  the  joints. 

Nine  Different  Localities. 

65.  There  are  at  least  nine  different  localities  on  the 
limb  of  a  horse  where  diseases  of  various  tissues  can  be 
produced  by  an  undue  elevation  of  the  toe.  Simply 
lowering  the  toe  is  the  remedy  for  all  those  diseases. 
Keeping  the  toe  at  its  normal  level  and  balance  is  also 
a  preventive  as  well  as  a  curative  measure  for  the  ail- 
ments of  these  different  localities,  which  have  yet  to  be 
referred  to  more  at  length  separately. 

One  Disease  at  a  Time. 

66.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  when  a  horse  is  afflicted 
as  above  mentioned,  he  is  seldom  affected  in  more  than 
one  of  those  localities  at  the  same  time,  notwithstanding 
that  he  may  be  liable  to  all  of  them.  The  reason  for 
this  is  that  when  a  painful  sensation  exists  due  to  any 
mechanical  cause,  the  implicated  member  is  used  so 
sparingly  as  not  to  tax  it  any  more  than  possible,  and 
not  until  the  existing  ailment  has  ceased  will,  as  a  rule, 
another  appear,  although  exposed  to  the  same  exciting 
causes.  These  last  ailments  are  no  exception  to  the 
general  rule,  namely,  that  in  all  injuries  to  which  the 
horse  is  .subject  in  his  feet,  when  they  have  a  mechani- 
cal origin,  the  existing  disease  becomes  a  preventive  of 
others. 

Pointing  Locates  the  Deformity. 

6y.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  pointing  of  the 
feet  is  a  symptom  indicating  some  deformity  of  the  feet, 
and  also  that  this  pointing  locates  the  deformity.  In 
treating  of  the  anatomy  of  the  extremities  of  the  leg,. 


44  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

it  li.is  been  shown  that  the  extensor  in  front  of  and  the 
flexors  at  the  back  of  the  leg  bind  together  and  direct 
the  movements  of  the  last  two  bones,  the  coronary  and 
the  pedal  bones.  It  may  now  be  added  that  those  ten- 
dons, the  flexors  and  extensor,  may  be  seen  to  serve  as 
braces  by  which  the  Jointed  colruiirm  of  bones  is  kept  in  its 
proper  position.  This  use  of  the  tendons  will  be  read- 
ily recognized,  and  serves  to  strengthen  my  theory  as 
to  the  chief  cause  of  navicular  disease.  At  every  step 
by  the  horse  when  going  perfectly  sound,  these  tendons 
are  exerted  nearly  to  their  full  extremity,  but  when  an. 
abnormal  elevation  of  the  toe  occurs,  as  it  is  perpetually 
by  the  growth  of  horn,  these  tendons,  especially  the  back 
ones,  must  be  taxed  beyond  their  normal  strength. 
From  whatever  point  of  view  taken,  when  you  have  the 
key  of  the  question,  but  one  conclusion  can  be  arrived  at 
as  to  the  cause  of  navicular  disease,  and  that  is  an  un- 
due elevation  of  the  toe. 

My  First  Case. 

68.  It  may  not  be  altogether  uninstructive  to  make 
some  reference  to  the  first  case  that  engaged  my  atten- 
tion, and  to  the  circumstances  which  led  me  to  the  study 
of  horses'  feet  and  their  maladies,  as  well  as  mechanical 
devices  intended  to  cure  or  alleviate  those  maladies.  It 
was  that  of  a  horse  with  feet  resembling  those  of  a  mule, 
and  who  pointed  with  both  fore  feet.  The  symptoms  were 
those  of  a  pronounced  case  of  navicular  disease.  Stand- 
ing without  pointing,  as  he  would  sometimes,  having 
all  toe  and  no  heel,  his  weight  was  supported  by  the  toes 
only,  his  heels  not  coming  near  the  ground.  His  feet 
were  narrow  and  circumscribed  by  deep  ridges  and  fur- 
rows. The  front  part  of  the  hoof  bulged  out  like  that 
shown  in  Cut  5.  In  order  to  obtain  support  from  his 
heels  he  would  point  his  feet  so  as  to  form  an  angle  of 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  45 

nearly  forty-five  degrees.  When  at  that  angle  the  heels 
would  reach  the  ground,  and  assist  in  bearing  weight. 
When  in  progression  his  steps  were  almost  a  continued 
series  of  tumblings  and  trippings.  The  animal  was  pur- 
chased to  tread  a  horse-power  machine. 

While  in  the  ascending  position  a  still  greater  space 
was  left  between  his  heels  and  the  slats  than  when 
standing  on  the  ground.  Under  these  conditions  he 
travelled  still  more  upon  his  toes  than  he  did  while 
walking  on  a  level  floor.  His  feet  were  very  long,  so  1 
cut  them  down  cautiously  and  tried  him  again.  Find- 
ing no  benefit  I  cut  them  still  more  and  put  on  a  shoe 
with  raised  heels.  This  improved  matters  a  little,  but 
the  calks  would  slip  in  between  the  slats,  so  I  had  the 
calks  made  long  enough  to  cover  the  space  between  the 
slats  when  put  on  sideways,  and  I  then  found  a  remark- 
able improvement  in  the  horse's  way  of  going.  This 
took  place  in  the  fall  and  winter,  and  in  the  spring  fol- 
lowing he  travelled  perfectly  sound  on  flat  shoes,  noth- 
ing having  been  done  to  him  but  to  keep  his  feet  pared 
down  and  in  a  well-balanced  condition. 


Column  and  Base. 

69.  My  success  with  my  first  case  inclined  me  to  take 
a  mechanical  view  of  all  forms  of  lameness  that  I  met 
with  after  that  time,  and  I  bought  horses  for  experimen- 
tal purposes,  and  my  neighbors  considered  me  very  lucky 
in  my  purchases.  One  of  the  first  mechanical  ideas  1 
had  about  the  foot  and  leg  of  the  horse  was  that  of  a 
column  and  a  base  of  support,  such  as  the  following: 
Suppose  four  inches  for  the  base  of  a  column  about  the 
same  length  and  breadth  as  a  horse's  foot,  and  a  column 
about  four  feet  high  to  represent  a  horse's  leg;  two  of 
these  will  represent  a  horse's  fore  legs.  Let  one  of  these 
columns    be    standing    perpendicularly.      If    one-fourth 


46  THE   FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE. 

inch  of  elevation  be  placed  under  one  side  of  the  base  of 
the  said  column. (see  Fig.  15),  it  would  throw  its  high- 
est portion,  the  top  of  the  column,  one-sixteenth  part  of 
its  length  from  the  vertical  point  (see  Fig.  14).  One- 
half  inch  would  throw  it  one-eighth  from  a  vertical  point 
and  one  inch  would  incline  it  one-fourth  from  the  vertical 
point,  which  would  be  an  angle  of  22^  degrees.  This 
is  strictly  applicable  to  the  foot  and  leg  of  a  horse.  The 
same  degrees  of  elevation  by  growth  of  horn  or  by  artifi- 
cial appliances  will  produce  exactly  the  same  degrees  of 
inclination  in  the  limbs  of  the  horse,  if  they  were  free  to 
move  at  the  top.  As  they  cannot  move  at  the  top,  the 
horse  points  with  his  feet  at  -the  same  angle  of  inclina- 
tion as  if  they  were  free  to  move  at  the  top,  in  order 
to  adapt  himself  to  circumstances. 

Judgment  and  Discrimination 

70.  Are  therefore  necessary  as  to  the  amount  of  ele- 
vation or  depression  required  to  produce  an  equalization 
and  levelling  of  the  treading  surface  best  represented 
by  the  term  balance.  These  are  easy  to  acquire  by  those 
who  will  take  the  trouble  to  understand  the  reason  why 
for  everything  they  do.  Horseshoers  should  therefore 
be  familiar  with  the  following  considerations.  When 
a  horse  points  he  may  do  so  because  his  toe  is  too  high, 
which  is  the  general  cause  of  his  pointing,  but  occasion- 
ally it  is  because  his  toe  is  too  long  rather  than  too  high. 
It  may  be  remarked  that  the  navicular  bone  becomes 
more  compressed  by  the  perforans  tendon  following  the 
fetlock  as  the  pastern  approaches  the  vertical  line.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  tendon  necessarily  follows 
the  angle  of  the  pastern,  and  when  the  pastern  is  verti- 
cal it  causes  the  tendon  to  press  or  to  pry  the  navicular 
bone  against  the  coronary  bone  (Cut  4,  letter  /-),  while 
if  the  pastern  be  very  oblique  the  perforans  tendon  runs 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  47 

in  a  straight  line  to  its  point  of  insertion  into  the  pedal 
bone  (Cut  II,  from  k  to/),  and  therefore  does  not  press 
so  heavily  against  the  navicular  bone  while  in  that  ob- 
lique position  (Cut  1 1 ,  letters  O  and  E).  Many  writ- 
ers have  noted  the  fact  that  horses  with  marked  obliquity 
of  pastern  are  not  predisposed  to  navicular  disease,  but 
I  am  not  aware  that  any  one  has  before  explained  the 
reason. 

Oblique  Pasterns. 

71.  It  will  be  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  different 
obliquities  of  the  pastern  can  also  be  produced  to  a  great 
•extent  by  artificial  devices,  such  as  by  paring  the  hoof 
at  heel  or  toe,  or  by  means  of  a  shoe  high  at  heel  or  toe. 
In   this  way  we  can  produce  or  prevent  the   navicular 

^disease  to  a  great  extent. 

A  Mechanical  Problem. 

72.  I  want  now  to  trouble  the  reader  and  especially 
the  horseshoer  with  a  little  problem  that  I  wish  them  to 
understand,  because  it  throws  much  light  on  the  move- 
ments of  that  remarkable  bone,  the  pedal  bone,  and  how 
the  pedal  joint  is  made  to  act  and  react  upon  all  the 
joints  above  it.  It  is  and  must  be  very  clear  that  upon 
the  elevation  or  depression  of  the  toe  at  the  moment  it 
leaves  the  ground  depends  the  elevation  or  depression 
of  the  heels.  The  movements  of  the  toe  and  heels  will 
produce  a  tightening  and  a  slackening  alternately  of  the 
perforans  tendon,  and  a  correspondingly  oblique  or  up- 
right pastern,  just  as  surely  as  night  follows  day  and 
day  follows  night,  and  with  the  same  certainty  that  the 
turning  of  a  peg  would  have  upon  the  string  of  a  violin. 
A  correct  appreciation  of  these  movements  will  enable 
one  to  locate  the  various  injuries  that  affect  the  liga- 
ments and  tendons  of  the  leg  with  more  certainty  than 
where  there  is  a  lack  of  that  understanding. 


48  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

To  Lessen  the  Tension  Upon  the  Perforans. 

.73.  There  are  lesions  of  the  perforatus  and  of  the 
suspensory  ligament  where  a  high-heeled  shoe,  no  matter 
how  high  or  of  what  form,  will  effect  no  immediate  re- 
lief to  the  horse,  but  any  injury  to  the  perforans,  from  its 
intimate  and  direct  connection  with  the  pedal  bone,  may 
be  always  and  instantly  relieved  by  an  appliance  that  will 
lessen  the  tension  of  that  tendon. 

Navicular  Disease  and  the  Form  of  the  Pasterns. 

74.  We  have  not  quite  finished  our  observations  on 
the  form  of  the  pasterns  in  relation  to  the  causes  of  navic- 
ular disease.  Two  facts  of  observation  have  been  made 
that  have  been  too  obvious  to  pass  over,  I  suppose,  but 
no  explanation  of  those  facts  has  been  ventured  upon 
that  I-  have  seen  or  heard.  Now  as  I  agree  to  consider 
them  as  facts,  I  wish  to  give  my  reasons  for  that  agree- 
ment. The  facts  referred  to  are  that  navicular  disease 
is  usually  associated  with  upright  pasterns,  and  rarely 
met  with  in  oblique  pasterns.  These  facts,  I  think,  are 
susceptible  of  proof  from  merely  mechanical  considera- 
tions, and  ought,  I  think,  to  be  sufficient  to  dissipate  the 
notion  that  the  "  rheumatoid-diathesis'  theory  has  got  the 
smallest  particle  of  a  leg  to  support  it. 

Analysis  of  Pasterns. 

75.  I  will  analyze  three  examples  of  pasterns:  one 
extremely  oblique,  one  extremely  vertical,  and  one  I 
will  call  the  happy-medium  pastern  (refer  to  Cut  11). 
I  want  to  show  how  the  obliquity  or  uprightness  of  the 
pastern  joint  alters  the  position  of  the  pedal  bone  in  its 
relations  to  the  line  of  bearing,  by  throwing  the  weight 
of  the  animal  off  ox  on  to  the  navicular  bone.  We  shall 
find  that  an  oblique  pastern  throws  the  weight  off  and 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  49 

an  upright  pastern  throws  it  on,  a  proposition  denied  by- 
Professor  Williams,  but  which  I  will  prove  if  there  be 
any  virtue  in  mechanical  principles. 

An  Oblique  Pastern. 

76.  An  oblique  pastern  is  represented  at  Cut  1 1 .  This 
will  enable  you  to  understand  the  mechanism  of  the 
pastern  and  pedal  joints  in  a  few  minutes.  The  move- 
ments of  these  two  joints  are  correlated  and  reciprocal ; 
they  have  no  separate  action.  Starting  with  the  large 
cannon  bone,  this  bone  with  its  burden  of  weight  presses 
upon  the  large  pastern  bone.  I  need  hardly  remind  you 
that  the  pastern  joint  is  formed  by  the  apposition  of 
these  two  bones.  The  pressure  of  this  weight  causes 
the  pastern  to  become  more  oblique,  and  in  consequence 
of  this  obliquity  the  horse  is  not  quite  so  tall  as  he  was, 
the  sharper  angle  having  somewhat  reduced  his  height. 
Now  observe  the  movement  effected  by  bending  the 
sharper  angle  of  the  pastern  joint.  The  lower  end  of 
the  small  pastern  has  been  raised  toward  the  apex  of  the 
pedal  bone.  This  movement  is  aided  by  the  strain  put 
upon  the  back  tendons,  the  principal  share  of  this  strain 
being  borne  by  the  perforans,  which  has  drawn  down- 
ward and  backward  the  pedal  bone,  and  has  altogether 
removed  the  pressure  from  the  navicular  bone.  The 
force  of  the  perforans  is  exerted  in  a  straight  line  from 
the  sesamoids  to  its  insertion  into  the  pedal  bone. 
Clearly  these  two  joints,  the  pastern  and  the  pedal,  form 
angles  the  opposite  of  each  other;  and  what  closes  the 
angle  of  one  opens  the  angle  of  the  other. 

The  Upright  Pastern. 

77.  We  will  now  consider  the  upright  pastern  and 
its  influences  in  the  production  of  navicular  disease.  In 
this  case  the  conditions  producing  obliquity  are  com- 

4 


50  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

pletely  changed.  The  angle  of  the  pastern  joint  is  less 
acute,  and  there  is  less  strain  upon  the  back  tendons  at 
the  pastern  joint.  The  large  and  small  pastern  bones 
assume  an  upiight  position,  and  instead  of  the  lower  end 
of  the  small  pastern  bone  pointing  toward  the  apex  of 
the  pedal  bone,  it  points  downward  toward  the  navicu- 
lar bone,  and  very  often  presses  severely  upon  it;  so 
that  that  bone,  the  navicular,  has  to  sustain  the  com- 
bined pressure  of  the  tension  exerted  by  the  perforans 
tendon,  and  that  of  direct  weight  downward,  upon,  and 
through  the  pastern  bones.  Plainly  the  more  curvature 
of  the  perforans  at  the  pastern  joint  the  less  we  shall 
have  at  the  pedal  joint,  and  as  a  matter  of  course  the 
converse  of  this  must  be  true,  the  more  curvature  at  the 
pedal  joint  the  less  at  the  pastern. 

The  Happy-Medium  Pastern 

78.  Is  neither  too  oblique  nor  too  upright;  it  implies 
a  well-balanced  foot  and  limb.  Everything  else  being 
equal  there  is  harmonious  movement  in  every  step.  The 
various  forces  antagonize  each  other  so  equally  and 
smoothly  that  when  any  disturbing  force,  such  as  an 
undue  elevation  of  the  heel  or  toe,  commences  to  act  on 
these  movements,  we  can  easily  imagine  such  a  balance 
of  forces  as  to  make  it  uncertain  which  of  the  two  joints 
will  be  affected  the  most — if  the  pedal  joint,  it  will  be 
navicular  disease;  if  the  pastern  joint,  we  shall  have  in- 
juries of  the  tissues  surrounding  it  and  in  intimate  con- 
nection with  it.  Now  if  the  reader  will  refer  again  to 
Cut  1 1 ,  he  will  perceive  that  by  the  elevation  of  the  toe 
from  the  point  c  to  a  this  movement  will  be  followed  by 
a  corresponding  movement  of  the  point  of  insertion  into 
the  pedal  bone  k  to  the  point  indicated  by  the  letters, 
and  this  movement  will  be  followed  by  the  straightening 
of  the  pastern  joint  until  it  coincides  with  the  dotted 
line  //. 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  5  I 


Respectfully  Submitted. 


79.  I  most  respectfully  submit  considerations  as  to 
the  causes  of  navicular  disease  and  on  the  rationale  of 
the  obliquity  of  pasterns,  to  Professor  Williams,  whose 
views  are  so  widely  different  from  my  own. 

About  Overgrowth  of  Horn. 

80.  A  lack  of  discretion  founded  on  correct  knowl- 
edge in  disposing  of  the  extra  growth  of  hoof,  when  the 
foot  grows  narrow  and  high,  accounts  in  my  opinion  for 
the  fact  that  so  many  thoroughbred  horses  are  affected 
with  navicular  disease  as  well  as  many  other  forms  of 
lameness.  Our  successful  practice  for  over  forty  years 
has  made  us  firm  in  this  view  of  the  matter.  Twenty- 
five  years  ago  I  found  Mr.  Robert  Bonner  practising  ac- 
cording to  this  view,  and  his  theory  and  practice,  like 
my  own,  have  never  changed  from  that  day  to  this.  If 
the 

Sacrifice  of  Much  Valuable  Time 

81.  And  twenty-five  years  of  close  study  and  experi- 
ment should  entitle  any  one's  opinions  to  some  weight 
on  any  given  subject,  whether  professional  or  otherwise, 
then  Mr.  Bonner's  opinions  on  the  theory  and  practice 
of  horseshoeing  should  be  eminently  so,  for  that  is  what 
might  truly  be  said  of  him. 

In  the  present  status  of  the  horseshoeing  art  he  would 
not  do  otherwise  than  superintend  and  direct  the  shoe- 
ing of  his  horses,  and  doubtless  it  pays  to  do  so,  for  no 
man  in  the  country  having  such  valuable  stock  has  less 
doctor's  bills  to  pay  on  account  of  his  horses  than  he 
has. 

But  to  return  to  the  subject  of  overgrowth  of  horn 


52  THE    FOOT    OF   THE   HORSE. 

and  foot-paring.  A  hoof  appears  in  such  good  shape 
sometimes  that  all  it  needs  is  to  be  lowered  all  round 
equally  (see  Cut  i,  line  /,  /).  Lameness  appears  in 
such  feet  sometimes,  and  when  the  wall  has  been  lowered 
even  with  the  sole  the  lameness  has  passed  away.  My 
inference  has  been  in  such  cases  that  a  little  projection 
of  the  wall  at  the  toe  had  set  up  just  so  much  leverage 
and  strain  upon  the  laminae  at  the  toe,  and  that  as  soon 
as  this  leverage  was  removed  the  strain  ceased  and  the 
soreness  or  tenderness  passed  away. 

Leverage  Upon  the  Laminae. 

82.  This  question,  too,  has  been  examined  from  a 
mechanical  point  of  view,  and  is  susceptible  of  the  fol- 
lowing explanation :  When  the  foot  is  allowed  to  grow 
too  high  or  too  long,  that  causes  the  column  or  line  of 
bearing  to  recede  from  the  centre  of  the  foot  backward, 
on  account  of  the  toe  and  heel  growing  at  the  same  for- 
ward angle.  Under  these  conditions,  when  the  foot 
lands  upon  the  ground,  the  laminae  at  the  quarters  and 
heels  are  forced  to  carry  more  than  their  share  of  weight, 
while  the  toe  by  its  extension  forward  has  created  a 
leverage  force  and  a  straining  effect  upon  the  laminae  in 
the  region  of  the  toe,  which  is  felt  most  at  each  finish- 
ing of  the  step,  and  in  addition  to  this  there  will  be  a 
corresponding  strain  upon  the  perforans  tendon  always 
predisposing  to  navicular  disease. 

Size,  Proportion,  and  Symmetry 

83.  Are  questions  with  which  he  who  would  under- 
take to  trim  and  pare  a  horse's  foot  should  be  perfectly 
familiar.  These  should  always  be  considered  in  relation 
to  the  power  of  that  organ.  It  always  seemed  to  me  that 
nature  must  have  made  some  provision  whereby  that 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  53 

great  constantly  growing  toe-nail  of  the  horse,  his  hoof, 
should  be  kept  within  due  limits,  since  overgrowth  is 
productive  of  so  many  injuries  to  the  horse.  It  has  also 
appeared  to  me  that  a  certain  size  and  proportion  would 
be  more  in  harmony  with  the  power  or  capacity  of  the 
mechanism  of  the  foot  than  any  hap-hazard  size  or  form 
that  suited  the  mere  fancy  of  the  shoer. 


Passing  Strange 

84.  It  has  seemed  to  me,  in  view  of  the  importance  of 
preserving  the  natural  size,  symmetry,  and  proportions 
of  the  horse's  foot  in  order  to  be  able  to  command  all 
his  full  services,  that  these  questions  have  received  so 
little  consideration  by  veterinary  writers,  the  discussion 
of  which  ought  to  throw  some  light  upon  the  subjects 
of  horseshoes  and  horseshoeing. 


The  Natural  Size  of  Every  Foot. 

85.  Before  laying  down  the  rule  implicitly  to  be  fol- 
lowed in  every  case,  whether  the  animal  be  sound  or 
lame,  I  wish  to  make  a  few  preliminary  observations. 
In  all  cases  of  lameness,  of  whatever  kind  or  degree  of 
intensity,  excepting  those  produced  by  accident,  which 
I  am  not  considering,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  re- 
duce the  foot  to  its  natural  size.  What  that  natural  size 
is  we  shall  come  to  presently.  The  horse  running  wild 
over  his  native  plains  doubtless  could  fulfil  nature's  in- 
tention as  regards  the  size  of  the  feet.  But  the  circum- 
stances of  the  horse  being  altered,  it  alters  his  case. 
His  foot  has  ceased  to  enjoy  nature's  guardianship,  and 
has  become  an  object  of  the  deepest  solicitude  as  to  its 
management  and  conservation  under  its  present  circum- 
stances. 


54  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 


The  Pedal  Joint  of  the  Horse  and  the  Wrist 
of  a  Man. 

86.  A  comparison  may  be  made  between  these  which 
will  serve  to  emphasize  a  fact  of  some  importance  in  the 
shoeing  of  horses.  The  wrist  is  the  nearest  large  joint 
to  a  man's  hand,  as  the  pedal  joint  is  the  nearest  to  his 
foot.  If  a  hammer  weighing  four  pounds  be  held  in  a 
manrs  hand,  we  all  know  that  in  proportion  to  the  length 
of  the  handle  will  be  the  loss  of  power  in  the  wrist. 
Now,  I  think  it  is  equally  true  that  the  farther  the  weight 
of  the  foot  extends  beyond  the  pedal  joint,  whether  it 
has  a  shoe  attached  to  it  or  not,  but  particularly  if  a  shoe 
be  attached,  the  greater  will  be  the  loss  of  power  in  that 
joint.  This  prepares  us  for  the  statement  that  the 
smaller  the  foot  is  the  greater  the  power  will  be,  all 
else  being  equal.  And  this  brings  us  to  the  question 
of  what  is  the  exact  or  proper  size  of  the  foot? 

Nature's  Footmark. 

87.  Happily  nature  has  placed  a  mark  in  every  per- 
fectly formed  foot  of  every  kind  and  degree  of  the  horse 
species,  like  Cut  1.  At  the  point  of  union  of  the  wall 
with  the  sole,  there  is  a  line  of  whitish  horn  which 
might  be  called  the  line  of  safety.  The  rule  then  is  that 
every  horse's  foot  should  be  cut  down  to  this  line  of  safety 
before  having  a  shoe  applied  to  it.  All  horn  beyond 
this  is  an  excrescence,  a  redundancy,  and  a  constantly 
accumulating  force  which  diminislics  the  power  of  the 
horse  in  proportion  to  the  surplus  growth,  and  is  the 
source  of  innumerable  troubles  to  the  horse.  All  horn 
whether  of  sole  or  wall  beyond  this  white  line  can  be 
removed  with  as  much  safety  to  the  horse  as  the  paring 
of  the  human  finger-nail  that  projects  beyond  the  skin 
at  the  end  of  the  finger.     When  this  rule   comes  into- 


_*i£   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  55 

practical  operation  and  its  wonderful  results  become 
manifest,  there  will  not  be  two  opinions  as  to  its  benefi- 
cent effects  upon  the  horse.  Writers  on  the  foot  have 
been  wishing  for  a  theory  that  would  harmonize. 

Conflicting  Opinions. 

88.  But  this  rule  or  law  will  do  more  than  harmon- 
ize conflicting  opinions,  it  will  unify  them.  Our  best 
writers  cannot  agree  as  to  how  a  foot  should  be  pared. 
Gne  wants  radical  cutting,  another  no  cutting  at  all,  and 
others  want  every  intermediate  kind  or  style  of  cutting. 
One  would  lower  the  heels,  another  the  toe,  and  the 
same  with  the  sole ;  one  wants  it  cut  until  it  yields  to 
the  pressure  of  the  thumb,  another  would  not  allow  a 
single  particle  to  be  removed. 

I  have  found  this  rule  to  be  an  absolutely  safe  one 
in  all  cases,  whether  the  horse  be  sound  or  lame.  To 
the  horseshoer  I  would  say  that  this  fact  is  one  of  the 
series  of  facts  which  will  aid,  I  believe,  in  establishing 
horseshoeing  upon  a 

Basis  of  Facts 

89.  That  shall  be  solid  and  enduring.  This  can  be 
the  only  sure  foundation  upon  which  horseshoeing  can 
be  improved  as  a  scientific  profession,  for  such  it  ought 
to  be,  if  ever  it  takes  its  rightful  place  in  social  recog- 
nition commensurate  with  its  importance  to  the  whole 
community.  Upon  this  foundation  of  facts,  which  can 
be  verified  in  every  horseshoer's  practice,  my  own  prac- 
tice has  been  built  for  over  forty  years,  and  my  success 
has  been  all  that  a  horseshoer  could  reasonably  hope  for. 

Examine  Thoroughly. 

90.  I  have  a  little  more  to  say  upon  the  subject  of 
trimming  and  paring  a  horse's  foot,  and  as  an  excuse 
for  some  repetitions  which  I  feel  it  necessary  to  make  I 


56  THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

plead  my  particular  desire  to  make  myself  perfectly  un- 
derstood. The  nature  of  the  subject  will  not  permit  of 
very  condensed  remarks,  if  you  wish  to  do  it  justice. 
I  repeat  that  the  white  line  that  marks  the  junction  of  the 
sole  and  the  wall  shows  precisely  the  size  each  horse's  foot 
ought  to  be,  other  things  being  equal.  I  deem  it  a  mis- 
taken idea  that  the  size  of  the  foot  can  be  best  ascertained 
by  taking-  a  sight  of  the  wall  while  the  foot  is  on  the 
ground,  for  there  is  more  to  judge  of  by  the  condition 
■of  the  sole,  and  of  the  extra  quantity  of  the  crust  or 
wall,  than  by  merely  looking  at  the  external  wall  of  the 
foot.  It  is  common  enough  to  see  the  hoof  projecting 
an  inch  beyond  its  proper  line  of  demarcation,  the  white 
line  referred  to. 

A  Surplus  of  Hoof 

91.  Is  always  a  detriment  to  the  foot,  and  was  never, 
I  believe,  intended  by  nature  to  accumulate  or  project 
beyond  the  sole,  but  was  intended  to  be  kept  down  by 
continuous  wear;  the  feet  being  kept  moist  and  mellow 
by  the  moisture  from  the  earth,  the  crust  beyond  the 
terminations  of  the  laminae  easily  crumbles  or  wears  off 
while  in  that  condition  even  with  the  junction  of  sole 
and  wall  (see  Cut  1,  line  /,  /).  By  this  provision  of 
nature  the  foot  retains  its  natural  size  and  symmetry, 
and  I  feel  assured  that  but  for  this  provision  of  nature 
horses  could  not  perpetuate  their  kind  as  do  the  fleshy- 
footed  animals.  As  said  before  these  animals  never  lose 
the  symmetry  of  their  feet,  as  they  mature  with  the 
growth  and  maturity  of  their  bodies.  Again  I  repeat 
that  the  size  of  the  foot  can  be  best  understood  by  ex- 
amining the  sole  instead  of  the  outside  of  the  foot  only, 
for  when  a  horse  runs  barefooted  the  sole  never  super- 
abounds  with  excrescence ;  the  overgrowth  scales  off  or 
is  pulverized  by  friction  with  the  ground  during  pro- 
gression. 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  57 


The  White  Line  of  Union. 

92.  The  sole  becomes  denuded  of  all  surplus  growth, 
and  is  plainly  seen  to  imbed  its  margin  into  the  crust 
just  where  the  size  of  the  foot  is  marked  by  the  union 
of  the  sole  and  wall.  This  line  of  union,  so  plainly  to 
be  seen  while  holding  the  foot  in  the  hand,  cannot  be 
seen  while  the  foot  is  upon  the  ground,  and  therefore 
the  only  way  to  be  sure  about  the  size  of  the  foot  is  to 
examine  the  sole  first. 

Excrescence  of  Sole. 

93.  When  the  horse  has  been  kept  in  a  stable,  the 
■excrescence  of  the  sole  does  not  always  scale  off,  for 
when  kept  dry  it  becomes  hard,  dense,  and  tenacious  to 
the  sound  horn,  and  has  to  be  cut  away  like  the  solid 
part  of  the  sole  down  to  its  proper  thickness,  and  this  is 
where  many  get  deceived. 

The  Solid  Sole. 

94.  After  a  horse  has  been  kept  in  a  stall  the  wall 
and  sole  may  grow  together  for  an  inch  or  more  beyond 
its  proper  limits,  both  in  height  and  length,  and  some- 
times the  sole  will  have  grown  even  with  the  wall,  fill- 
ing the  hollow  of  the  foot,  and  be  mistaken  for  sound 
horn,  or  even  the  true  horny  sole,  when  it  is  only  an 
•excrescence. 

The  true  horny  sole  is  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
thick,  a  little  more  or  less  according  to  the  size  of  the 
horse,  and  when  the  excrescent  hoof  is  cut  away  is  seen 
to  shine  where  it  is  cut,  and  the  shavings  are  very  tough 
like  leather,  the  fibres  adhering  to  each  other,  while  the 
surplus  hoof  is  gray  in  color  and  very  brittle. 


58  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 


The  Surplus  Sole 

95.  In  heavy  horses  with  large  feet  is  often  removed 
by  a  wedge  driven  between  the  scales  to  cause  their  sep- 
aration. The  true  solid  sole  could  not  be  split  in  this 
manner.  Shoes  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  preventing 
the  scaling  off  and  the  pulverizing  of  the  surplus  sole. 
Viewing  the  surplus  of  the  sole  when  a  wide-webbed 
shoe  is  upon  the  foot  would  be  apt  to  deceive  any  one ;. 
therefore  when  a  horse  is  to  be  shod,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain the  exact  size  of  his  feet,  the  shoe  should  be  taken 
off,  and  the  sole  rid  of  all  its  excrescences.  I  repeat,  all 
horn  projecting  beyond  the  line  of  union  of  sole  and  wall 
should  be  removed.  The  same  accumulation  of  surplus 
hoof  will  take  place  when  a  horse  is  barefooted  if  he  is 
constantly  kept  in  a  stable.  The  same  care  has  to  be 
taken  of  the  feet  in  such  a  case  as  when  the  horse  is  kept 
shod.  To  avoid  the  chances  of  lameness  the  feet  must 
be  kept  down  to  their  natural  size — there  is  no  other  way 
to  do  it  than  that  indicated. 


Thoroughbred  Horses. 

96.  Thoroughbred  horses  are  great  sufferers  from 
overgrowth  of  hoof,  although  the  form  of  hi  root  is 
preferable  to  that  of  the  flat  foot  or  the  convex  form. 
But  not  only  the  high-bred  horse  is  a  sufferer,  but  all 
breeds  which  have  high  cup- feet  are  great  sufferers  from 
navicular  and  other  diseases. 


Flat  Feet  and  Cup-Feet. 

97.  The  reason  why  navicular  disease  is  more  fre- 
quent with  cup  than  with  flat  feet  is  that  while  the  wall 
of  the  cup-foot  is  growing  at  an  angle  that  raises  the 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  59 

foot  from  the  ground,  sometimes  an  inch  or  more,  it 
rarely  grows  level,  and  it  cannot  therefore  support  evenly 
the  weight  it  has  to  carry. 


Level  as  Still  Water. 

98.  It  will  readily  be  seen  how  and  why  a  foot  of 
this  kind  should  become  unbalanced. 

Firstly,  owners  of  horses  generally  are  not  aware  of 
the  great  importance,  and  therefore  are  not  usually  im- 
pressed with  the  necessity,  of  keeping  the  pedal  bone 
balanced  under  all  circumstances  by  keeping  the  foot 
level,  level  as  still  water,  for  bones  so  frail  and  so  nar- 
row are  forced  to  carry  more  weight  on  one  side  of  the 
foot  than  upon  the  other  when  the  wall  projects  unevenly. 

Secondly,  when  the  wall  or  crust  gets  too  high  it  is 
not  capable  of  so  much  resistance  under  weight  as  when 
it  is  even  with  the  margin  of  the  sole,  and  therefore  will 
warp  at  its  weakest  part  when  that  weakest  part  gets  a 
little  more  weight  to  carry  than  its  usual  share. 

Two  Sticks  of  Whalebone. 

99.  If  the  foregoing  statement  is  not  perfectly  clear 
I  think  the  following  simple  illustration  ought  to  make 
it  so :  Suppose  two  sticks  of  whalebone  of  any  given 
diameter,  but  one  of  them  double  the  length  of  the  other, 
standing  vertically,  and  an  equal  amount  of  weight  placed 
on  the  ends  of  both.  I  don't  think  it  will  be  questioned 
that  the  shortest  will  sustain  more  weight  than  the  long- 
est without  bending;  and  this  is  what  happens  when  the 
foot  grows  too  high — it  must  warp  and  bend  under  the 
same  weight  that  the  shorter  foot  would  carry  without 
warping  (refer  to  Cut  1). 

The  last  paragraph  relates  to  the  lateral  disturbance 
of  the  balance  by  mere  growth ;  we  would  now  refer  to 


60  THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

the  loss  of  the  fore-and-aft  balance  produced  by  the  same 
cause.  The  angle  at  which  the  heels  are  constantly 
growing,  as  seen  in  Cut  i,  whereby  from  mere  healthy 
growth  the  heels  approach  toward  the  centre  of  the  foot, 
is  a  perpetual  source  of  danger.  This  angle  causes  one 
or  both  heels  to  warp  under  the  extra  weight  thrown 
upon  them  by  their  advance  toward  the  centre  of  bear- 
ing. This  advance  not  only  warps  the  heels,  but  causes 
a  displacement  of  the  pedal  bone,  by  making  it  higher 
at  the  toe  than  at  the  wings  or  heels. 

The  Causes  of  Navicular  Disease. 

ioo.  Various  have  been  the  causes  assigned  as  the 
origin  of  this  disease  by  different  authors,  one  of  which 
is  heredity;  but  my  opinion  is  that  if  heredity  has  anything 
to  do  with  it,  it  is  only  as  far  as  the  form  and  texture  of 
the  hoof  are  concerned,  for  I  have  often  seen  two  full 
brothers,  one  with  cup-feet  troubled  with  navicular  dis- 
ease, and  the  other  with  flat  feet  entirely  free  from  that 
disease,  this  being  the  rule.  I  think  the  true  cause  may 
be  stated  to  be  that  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  require- 
ments of  the  horse's  feet  in  relation  to  shoeing  is  not 
only  the  cause  of  navicular  disease,  but  of  all  other  dis- 
eases of  the  foot  and  leg  of  the  horse. 

Professor  Zundel. 

101.  The  difference  in  the  form  of  feet  as  producing 
different  effects  has  been  apparent  to  some  veterinary 
writers,  and  they  have  observed  the  absence  of  navicular 
disease  among  flat-footed  animals.  Professor  Zundel,  a 
distinguished  French  veterinarian,  in  his  treatise  on 
"  Lameness  of  Horses,"  refers  to  the  general  absence  of 
navicular  disease  among  flat-footed  horses,  and  notices 
its  very  common  appearance  among  well-bred  horses, 
•especially  those  of    English  breed. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  6 1 


Professor  Williams 


1 02.  Considers  navicular  disease  the  most  fertile 
cause  of  lameness  that  he  knows  of  in  the  best-bred 
horses,  and  reiterates  an  oft-made  remark  that  this  dis- 
ease is  "the  bane  of  good  horseflesh." 

Only  One  Exception  to  the  Rule. 

103.  All  authors  who  have  written  upon  the  subject 
of  lameness  of  horses  have  associated  the  narrow  cup-foot 
with  navicular  disease,  and  only  one  writer  is  on  record 
who  has  observed  a  case  of  that  nature  in  a  flat  foot. 

A  New  Theory. 

104.  So  little  is  known  of  the  true  causes  of  the  na- 
vicular disease,  as  is  apparent  from  all  the  books  I  have 
read  on  lameness,  that  I  shall  deem  it  both  a  pleasure 
and  a  duty  to  demonstrate  as  fully  as  possible  the  truth 
of  what  I  cannot  help  believing  will  be  found  to  be  es- 
sentially a  new  theory. 

Silent  Demonstration. 

105.  If  it  were  possible  I  should  like  to  give  a  silent 
demonstration  of  the  truth  of  my  views  upon  the  most 
pronounced  cases  of  navicular  disease,  in  the  presence 
of  every  living  writer  upon  the  subject,  but  as  this  is 
not  possible  I  will  do  the  next  best  thing,  and  give  as 
good  a  demonstration  as  I  can  on  paper  which  the  sub- 
ject will  admit  of,  and  I  have  the  capability  of  giving. 

Unbalanced  by  Accident. 

106.  I  think  I  have  made  it  plain  that  the  crust  or 
wall  of  the  cup-foot,  by  projecting  beyond  the  junction 
of  the  sole  and  wall,  affords  reasons  enough  to  show  that 


62  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

the  foot  becomes  unbalanced  by  accident  as  well  as  by 
the  practitioner's  not  knowing  anything  about  nature's 
rule  for  reducing  the  wall  of  a  high  foot  already  de- 
scribed. 

Maintains  His  Own  Balance. 

107.  The  flat-footed  horse,  although  not  so  salable 
nor  so  desirable  in  the  market,  has  been  employed  in 
many  kinds  of  work,  and  has  rendered  longer  and  better 
service  than  his  cup-footed  congeners  on  account  of  his 
greater  capability  of  maintaining  his  own  balance. 

All  Diseases  Spring  from  Want  of  Balance. 

108.  I  present  this  fact  from  every  possible  point  of 
view.  I  cannot  find  a  single  disease  of  the  locomotory 
organs  that  cannot  be  traced  to  a  deviation  from  a  per- 
fect balance  at  either  of  the  eight  points  of  the  chart  as 
seen  at  Cut  9,  which  has  been  drawn  the  better  to  dem- 
onstrate what  is  apt  to  take  place  with  a  cup-foot. 

The  wall  is  liable  to  become  too  high  or  too  low  at 
either  of  those  eight  points  of  its  circumference,  simply 
by  projecting  beyond  its  line  of  union  with  the  sole. 

Hereditary  Tendency. 

109.  Another  word  about  heredity.  I  said  before 
that  I  believe  that  any  hereditary  tendency  to  the  na- 
vicular disease  is  limited  mostly  to  the  texture  of  the  horn 
structures.  Texture  gives  the  form  of  the  hoof,  and 
the  form  produces  the  lameness.  I  regard  it  as  a  proof 
of  this  that  the  different  textures  of  the  hoof  are  found 
in  different  forms  of  feet.  The  hard,  compact  hoof  or 
horn  is  found  in  cup-shaped  feet  resembling  those  rep- 
resented in  Cut  1.  When  the  nails  are  being  driven 
into  them,  they  ring  under  the  hammer,  the  hoof  being 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  63 

so  dense ;  and  the  spongy,  soft  hoof  is  found  in  the  flat 
feet,  showing  that  from  the  rigidity  and  texture  of  the 
horn  comes  the  form,  and  the  form  gives  the  ease  or  the 
dis-e&se. 

Solid  and  Spongy  Feet. 

no.  It  is  obvious  that  a  soft  or  spongy  foot  cannot 
retain  the  same  form  or  angle  under  the  same  weight  as 
that  of  the  firmer  and  harder  kind.  The  first  flattens 
and  conforms  itself  to  the  required  level  of  the  foot ;  in 
other  words,  more  readily  adapts  itself  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  pedal  bone  within  it ;  while  the  better  qual- 
ity, the  hard,  compact,  and  dense  hoof  as  seen  in  Cut  1, 
while  being  secreted,  molds  itself  closely  to  the  form 
of  the  pedal  bone  as  it  grows  and  retains  that  form 
whether  good  or  bad,  regardless  of  the  weight  it  has  to 
carry  or  the  requirements  of  the  foot  as  to  its  perfectly 
level  bearing  and  due  balance  in  every  direction.  The 
hoof  being  so  hard  and  resistant,  the  weight  is  carried 
mostly  or  entirely  by  the  highest  part  to  the  detriment 
of  the  articulation  within. 


The  Influence  of  Form  on  Diseases  of  the  Feet. 

in.  Diseases  of  flat  feet  vary  as  much  in  their  na- 
ture as  the  feet  vary  in  form,  proving  that  the  diseases 
common  to  either  are  due  to  the  form  of  the  feet.  So 
much  are  we  convinced  of  the  truth  of  this  theory  that 
we  have  often  said,  as  regards  the  three  locations  of  a 
ringbone :  Tell  me  the  formation  of  the  foot  and  I  will 
tell  you  without  seeing  the  case  on  what  part  of  the 
pastern  it  is  situated,  and  vice  versa.  Tell  me  the  loca- 
tion of  the  ringbone  and  I  will  tell  you  the  formation 
of  the  foot.  It  is  the  same  with  spavin,  knee-sprung, 
knuckling,  etc.,  or  of  pointing  va  any  direction,  as  those 
conditions  are  all  produced  by  a  deformity  of  the  hoof. 


64  THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 


A  Good  Thing  to  Know. 

112.  Therefore  the  value  of  a  horse  to  any  one  is  very 
much  dependent  on  the  knowledge  he  possesses  of  this 
theory ;  for  different  forms  require  different  methods  of 
treatment  and  different  modes  of  shoeing.  The  chances 
of  the  pedal  bone  being  kept  balanced  and  in  a  state  of 
soundness  by  the  two  forms  of  feet  are  five  to  one  in 
favor  of  the  flat  foot.  The  spongy  hoof  grows  more  on. 
a  level  with  the  ground,  and  therefore  is  better  balanced, 
as  seen  at  Cut  2,  where  the  toe  of  the  pedal  bone  is  seen 
to  drop  on  account  of  the  hoof  sprawling  and  becoming 
wider  in  circumference  in  front  than  the  cup-foot. 


An  Indispensable  Necessity. 

113.  In  the  same  proportion  that  it  keeps  on  a  level. 
with  the  ground  the  pedal  bone  will  be  level  and  there- 
fore properly  balanced,  without  artificial  means.  This- 
accounts  for  the  comparative  soundness  of  flat  feet,  and 
proves  that  balancing  the  feet  frequently  is  an  indispen- 
sable necessity. 

Perpendicular  Heels. 

114.  In  the  spongy  hoof,  as  a  rule,  the  heels  grow- 
higher  than  the  toe,  thus  preventing  undue  strains  of 
tendons  and  their  diseases,  as  seen  by  the  grain  of  the 
hoof  represented  in  Cut  2.  It  grows  more  perpendicu- 
larly and  therefore  raises  the  heel  higher  than  the  toe, 
which  at  that  point  forms  a  curve  ending  nearly  hori- 
zontal. It  will  be  deduced  from  this  that  cup-feet  are 
subject  to  undue  length  and  height  of  toe,  and  flat  feet 
to  too  much  height  of  heel,  each  form,  as  I  before  pre- 
mised, producing  ailments  peculiar  to  its  own  formation. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  6$ 


Ailments  from  Too  High  Heels. 

115.  I  here  present  a  list  of  the  ailments  which  pro- 
ceed from  the  heels  being  too  high  (see  Cut  2  for 
this  form  of  foot) : 

1 .  Com,  on  account  of  treading  too  much  on  the  heels, 
which  are  almost  always  too  high. 

2.  Scratches,  caused  by  concussion  to  the  heels  while 
travelling,  which  also  produces  fever  in  the  same  region. 

3.  Knee-sprung. 

4.  Soreness  and  some  swelling  at  the  apex  of  the 
pedal  bone. 

5.  Pointing  backward.. 

6.  Ossified  cartilages. 

7.  Quarter-crack. 

8.  Inability  to  extend  while  progressing  at  high 
speed,  and  finishing  the  step  too  much  under  the  centre 
of  the  body. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  diseases  referred  to,  that 
is,  those  caused  by  high  toe  and  those  caused  by  high 
heels,  are  induced  by  feet  of  opposite  forms,  or  by  the 
extremes  of  two  evils  proceeding  from  opposite  direc- 
tions. 

One  Good  Turn  Deserves  Another. 

116.  One  of  those  strange  anomalies  we  meet  with 
in  the  horse's  foot,  we  may  notice  here.  It  seems  some- 
what anomalous  that  either  height  of  toe  or  height  of 
heels  should  be  in  itself  a  cause  of  one  class  of  diseases 
and  a  remedy  in  another.  For  instance,  those  diseases 
produced  by  high  toes  can  be  removed  or  benefited  by 
relatively  raising  the  heels,  and  those  produced  by  high 
heels  by  similarly  raising  the  toes.  The  remedy  for  the 
last-named  ailment  produced  by  high  heels  obviously 
must  be  by  lowering  the  heels,  and,  as  explained  before, 


66  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

those  different  diseases  must  be  looked  for  in  horses 
which  are  in  the  habit  of  standing  with  their  fore  feet 
back  under  the  centre  of  the  body,  in  other  words  point- 
ing backward.  Some  of  these  diseases  will  be  referred 
to  when  we  treat  of  each  disease  separately. 

The  Natural  Size  of  the  Foot. 

117.  This  important  consideration  is  referred  to  again 
in  order  to  give  point  to  some  observations  I  wish  to 
make  concerning  the  size  of  feet.  It  cannot  be  repeated 
too  often  that  the  line  of  union  of  the  sole  with  the  wall 
indicates  the  limits  of  a  sound  foot,  for  a  horse  in  a  state 
of  nature  could  not  be  supposed  to  travel  after  the  sole 
had  been  worn  through  to  the  sensitive  laminae;  pain 
would  necessarily  stop  him  until  the  soles  of  his  feet  had 
grown  again ;  neither,  on  the  other  hand,  could  he  be 
supposed  to  travel  at  all  if  his  feet  should  get  out  of 
proportion  by  extra  growth. 

A  Comparison. 

118.  Suppose  that  an  equal  number  of  horses,  ele- 
phants, camels,  and  dogs,  say  six  of  each,  were  to  be 
confined  in  box  stalls  all  in  proportion  to  their  relative 
size,  all  fed  suitably  to  their  wants,  and  kept  in  confine- 
ment for  the  same  length  of  time,  say  for  two  or  three 
years,  every  requirement  being  supplied,  but  no  atten- 
tion paid  whatever  to  the  state  of  their  feet.  Under 
these  circumstances  which  class  of  animals  would  live 
the  longest,  or  rather  which  would  succumb  first?  The 
horse  only  would  have  suffered  by  the  neglect  of  his 
feet.  Why?  Because  the  horse,  unlike  the  other  ani- 
mals, having  feet  which  grow  at  the  rate  of  four  inches 
a  year,  in  two  years'  time,  if  he  lived  so  long,  his  feet 
would  be  twelve  inches  long.     No  horse  could  be  sup- 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  67 

posed  to  survive  the  pain,  irritation,  and  suffering  which 
the  possession  of  such  hoofs  would  necessarily  entail. 


Spring  Colts  and  Overgrown  Feet. 

119.  I  have  seen  spring  colts  hardly  able  to  stand  up 
on  account  of  overgrowth  of  hoof  which  has  been  accu- 
mulating during  the  winter,  having  been  kept  within 
doors,  and  their  feet  having  received  no  attention  what- 
ever during  that  time. 

Reproduction. 

120.  It  is  not  very  generally  known,  but  it  is  a  fact, 
that  horses  in  the  domesticated  state  cannot  thrive  suffi- 
ciently to  beget  offspring,  if  their  feet  are  not  kept  down 
to  their  natural  size  by  the  judicious  use  of  the  paring- 
knife,  or  by  wear  and  tear  on  suitable  pastures.  Horses, 
under  all  circumstances  that  we  are  acquainted  with, 
thrive  better  when  their  feet  are  kept  trimmed  to  the 
level  indicated  by  the  line  of  union  of  sole  and  wall. 


Proper  Size  of  Foot. 

121.  Again  the  proper  size  and  form  of  the  foot  is 
referred  to.  I  consider  the  feet  have  been  so  described 
as  to  enable  any  one  to  discern  the  form  that  causes  either 
class  of  diseases,  the  line  marking  the  size  and  form  of 
the  foot  so  that  any  one  of  intelligence  may  be  able  to 
recognize  a  normal  foot. 

The  right  size  for  permanent  utility,  as  we  have  seen, 
lias  been  limited  by  nature  to  where  the  sole  and  wall 
unite,  and  that  size  can  only  be  retained  by  periodically 
reducing  all  that  grows  beyond  that  line.  That  which 
is  removed  must  represent  loss  or  gain  of  power.  The 
horse's  foot  being  of  so  small  a  bulk  in  relation  to  its 


68  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

weight,  carrying  power,  and  the  velocity  it  is  capable  of 
attaining,  requires  the  nice  adjustment  to  each  other  of 
all  its  component  parts  in  order  that  no  power  shall  be 
lost. 


Horses'  Disadvantages  Mechanically  Considered. 

122.  It  is  a  general  principle  that  the  smaller  the 
machine  and  the  greater  the  pressure  the  more  perfect 
must  be  the  harmony  of  its  component  parts.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  smallness  of  the  foot  in  relation  to  the  weight 
it  has  to  carry  and  the  speed  it  is  capable  of,  it  has  to 
perform  its  work  under  a  disadvantage  not  to  be  seen  in 
any  piece  of  common  machinery.  The  latter  never 
changes  its  component  parts  or  any  one  of  them  by 
growing  larger  every  day,  no  matter  whether  at  rest  or 
in  motion.  This  is  a  serious  disadvantage  to  the  horse, 
whose  feet  are  growing  all  the  time,  at  rest  or  in  motion, 
and  necessarily  affects  the  moving  power  of  the  horse 
prejudicially,  and  the  more  so  the  longer  it  grows.  I 
cannot,  therefore,  consider  it  an  unimportant  question: 
How  much  power  is  lost  by  a  neglect  to  reduce  the  extra 
growth  of  wall  even  with  the  sole  ? 


Loss  of  Power  from  Overgrowth  of  Hoof. 

123.  We  may  form  some  idea  of  the  loss  of  power 
alone  from  the  extension  and  elevation  of  the  foot  by 
mere  growth.  Remembering  that  the  horse's  leg  is  a 
lever,  let  us  make  a  little  study  about  the  properties  of 
the  lever.  We  may  get  different  degrees  of  power  by 
the  same  weight.  The  power  of  a  common  lever  is  al- 
ways in  proportion  to  its  diameter.  If  a  lever  placed 
upon  a  fulcrum  four  inches  from  its  prying  end  is  capa- 
ble of  raising  twelve  hundred  pounds,  being  one  inch 
in  diameter,   how  much    power  will  it  lose  by  placing 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  69 

the  lever  upon  the  fulcrum  at  five  inches  from  the 
end?  Answer,  one-fourth  of  its  power  is  lost;  and 
placed  on  the  fulcrum  six  inches  from  its  end  it  will 
have  lost  one-half,  and  vice  versa,  if  placed  at  three  inches 
from  its  prying  end  it  will  gain  or  have  one-fourth  more 
than  required,  and  if  placed  at  two  inches  from  the  ful- 
crum it  will  have  gained  double  the  power. 

Now  please  consider  that  the  horse's  weight  is  carried 
on  four  levers  or  derricks,  where  at  four  inches  from  its 
prying  end  it  is  one  inch  in  diameter  as  seen  at  Cut  1 1 . 
(This  represents  the  distance  marked  from  letter  k  to  let- 
ter a,  which  is  one  inch  in  diameter  of  the  coronary  bone, 
which  works  the  same  as  a  common  lever  against  the 
length  of  four  inches,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  hoof  or  foot 
itself.) 

The  Leg  a  Lever. 

124.  The  propriety  of  this  comparison  will  appear 
when  we  take  into  consideration  that  the  tendons  or 
braces  of  the  lever  run  no  farther  than  the  posterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  foot,  which  is  four  inches  in  length,  and  to 
be  used  as  the  short  arm  of  the  lever,  so  if  we  take  it  for 
granted  that  the  fulcrum  lies  where  that  tendon  is  in- 
serted, the  question  of  power  lost  or  gained  under  cer- 
tain conditions  will  be  easily  solved,  as  we  know  that 
the  tendon  and  column  of  the  leg  all  terminate  at  the 
foot  bone,  while  the  lower  end  of  the  column  of  bone, 
the  long  arm  of  the  lever,  butts  against  the  same  bone  as 
represented  in  Cut  1 1  by  the  line  from  letter  /to  a  at 
the  apex. 

The  Effect  of  Disproportion. 

125.  Therefore  the  power  of  the  horse's  lever  at  that 
point,  that  is  to  say,  his  leg,  is  determined  by  its  diame- 
ter in  comparison  to  the  length  of  the  prying  end  of  the 


yo  THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

foot.  So  we  see  that  if  the  foot  is  allowed  to  grow  in 
length  one  inch  beyond  the  point  of  union  of  sole  and 
wall,  which  is  too  often  the  case,  the  same  proportion 
of  the  loss  of  power  is  the  result;  that  is,  the  power  of 
a  twelve-hundred-pound-horse  motor  is  reduced  to  that 
of  nine  hundred  pounds,  and  if  allowed  to  grow  two 
inches  the  power  is  diminished  to  six  hundred  pounds. 
The  reader  may  say  if  this  is  a  good  rule  it  should 
work  both  ways,  and  many  a  time  I  have  proved  it  to 
work  both  ways;  when  the  result  would  be  attrib- 
uted to  any  causes  but  the  true  one — the  removal  of  the 
adverse  leverage  caused  by  a  disproportionate  foot.  I 
have  many  a  time  caused  a  horse  to  gain  in  flesh  while 
working  and  drawing  a  heavier  load  than  before,  just 
by  reducing  the  extra  length  of  his  feet,  or  the  short 
arms  of  the  four  levers  he  walks  upon.  A  commonly 
observed  fact  that  ought  to  make  this  very  clear  is  that 
when  a  horse  is  moving  a  load  the  final  effort  is  made 
upon  the  point  of  the  toes;  the  longer  the  toes  the 
greater  the  effort  necessary  to  move  the  load.  As  said 
before,  the  length  of  the  foot  may  be  compared  to  a  ham- 
mer in  a  man's  hand;  the  shorter  the  handle  of  the 
hammer  the  more  power  there  will  be  in  the  wrist. 
This  applies  exactly  to  the  case  of  the  horse's  foot  which 
we  have  been  considering,  and  proves  to  me  that  lame- 
ness very  often  proceeds  from  weakness  rather  than  from 
any  positive  disease. 

Weakness  Often  Causes  Lameness. 

126.  The  best  proof  that  I  can  give  of  this  is  that  it 
frequently  occurs  in  practice  that  a  horse  is  brought  to 
me  lame,  and  when  his  feet  have  been  cut  down,  or  in 
other  words  when  the  disproportions  of  his  feet  have 
been  reduced,  the  lameness  disappears.  It  is  necessary 
to  understand  this  in  order  to  understand  the  rationale 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  J I 

of  the  centre-bearing  shoe,  which  we  shall  become  ac- 
quainted with  presently.  With  a  common  lever,  the 
nearer  the  fulcrum  is  to  the  prying  end  the  easier  the 
weight  can  be  raised.  It  is  very  much  the  same  with  a 
horse  suffering  from  navicular  disease  and  pointing. 
The  fulcrum  and  prying  end  of  the  lever,  the  toe,  are  too 
far  apart  for  the  animal  to  stand  easily;  lameness  is  a 
warning  of  this  disproportion  of  the  foot;  and  weakness 
in  the  pastern  joint  is  evident  in  its  inability  to  bear  the 
weight  imposed  upon  it. 

The  Remedy. 

127.  I  am  now  come  to  talk  of  the  remedy.  In  order 
to  prepare  you  for  what  I  have  to  say  for  the  centre-bear- 
ing shoe,  let  me  revert  for  a  few  moments  to  the  proper- 
ties of  the  lever.  Everybody  knows  that  with  a  com- 
mon lever  we  can  move  the  fulcrum  nearer  or  farther 
from  the  prying  end  and  gain  or  diminish  power  as  we 
please.  In  the  horse's  leg  the  fulcrum  is  not  movable, 
being  formed  by  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot  itself. 
But  by  means  of  an  artificial  device  attached  to  the  foot 
we  can  place  the  fulcrum — in  other  words,  we  may  con- 
centrate the  bearing  to  any  point  of  the  foot  we  please. 

The  Centre-Bearing  Shoe. 

128.  I  have  been  so  much  impressed  with  the  view 
that  lameness  in  many  cases  proceeds  from  weakness 
without  disease,  caused  by  a  disproportioned  foot,  that 
the  first  thing  I  do  in  all  cases  of  lameness  is  to  redress 
the  deformity  or  disproportions  of  the  hoof  by  cutting 
the  wall  down  to  the  smallest  compass  possible,  that  is 
to  say,  even  with  the  sole,  as  by  this  I  remove  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  leverage  occasioned  by  the  greater 
circumference  of  the  foot ;  and  when  to  this  is  added  the 


72  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

attachment  of  a  centre-bearing  shoe  all  the  leverage  is 
absolutely  taken  away,  and  the  fulcrum  itself  is  the  small 
end  of  the  lever,  leaving  no  strain  upon  the  foot  in  any 
direction  whatever. 


Mr.  Robert  Bonner  and  Dexter. 

129.  Twenty-five  years  ago  my  success  in  the  treat- 
ment of  all  forms  of  foot  lameness  had  become  so  re- 
markable that  when  I  heard  that  Dexter,  the  old  king 
of  the  turf,  was  lame,  I  felt  sure  that,  no  matter  what  the 
cause  of  the  lameness  was,  I  could  restore  him  to  sound- 
ness. 

My  surprise  was  great  when  I  arrived  in  this  city 
and  found  that  the  old  king  was  fully  cured.  As  an 
architect  understands  the  structure  of  a  building,  so  Mr. 
Bonner  understood  the  structure  of  the  foot ;  he  could 
perceive  the  cause,  which  was  a  mechanical  one;  and 
when  the  mechanical  compensation  was  supplied  the  heal- 
ing powers  of  nature  did  the  rest. 

A  Good  Prescription. 

1 30.  Among  all  the  prescriptions  to  be  found  in  books 
on  lameness  there  are  none  so  good  as  rest.  There  is 
nothing  equal  to  rest,  nothing  so  indispensable  as  rest; 
yet  how  strange  it  must  appear  when  I  say  that  a  mod- 
erate amount  of  work  every  day  is  compatible  with  my 
idea  of  giving  rest  to  diseased  portions  of  the  foot  and 
leg. 

It  is  not  always  convenient  or  remunerative  to  stop 
using  the  horse,  neither  is  it  necessary ;  for  rest  can  be 
given  to  the  injured  parts  by  the  centre-bearing  shoe. 
I  should  not  make  such  a  sweeping  statement  as  this  if 
it  were  not  true,  as  it  can  be  tested  so  easily  by  any  or 
•every  horseshoer  in  the  country. 


THE    FOOT   OF    THE    HORSE.  73 


The  Properties  of  the  Centre-Bearing  Shoe. 

131.  If  the  power  of  the  lever  can  be  increased  by- 
moving  the  fulcrum  toward  the  prying  end  of  it,  it  can 
be  increased  in  the  same  ratio  by  moving  the  prying 
end  of  a  lever  toward  the  fulcrum.  In  the  horse's  foot 
the  centre-bearing  shoe  becomes  the  fulcrum  and  there 
is  no  short  arm  of  the  lever — it  has  been  moved  back — 
and  the  fulcrum  and  the  prying  end  of  the  lever  are  one 
and  the  same  thing. 

I  took  out  patents  in  Canada  in  1868  on  horseshoes 
so  formed  as  to  reduce  the  leverage  of  the  foot.  The 
use  of  these  for  twenty-five  years  and  my  observations 
for  a  still  longer  period  have  but  confirmed  my  earlier 
convictions  that  lameness  in  the  first  stages  comes  from 
weakness  induced  by  overgrown  feet. 

Mr.  Villeneuve's   Case   and   Professor   McEachran. 

132.  A  somewhat  remarkable  case  of  the  character 
last  mentioned  was  that  of  a  horse  belonging  to  Mr. 
Villeneuve,  of  Montreal,  Canada.  I  applied  a  centre- 
bearing  shoe  in  that  case  which  surprised  every  one  con- 
cerned but  myself.  This  horse  had  been  lame  for  sev- 
eral weeks  of  the  near  fore  foot,  and  had  been  under 
the  care  of  the  principal  of  the  Veterinary  College  of 
Montreal.  Prior  to  my  treatment,  a  seton  had  been  in- 
serted into  the  shoulder,  and  as  it  had  not  produced  the 
desired  effect  the  owner  asked  me  what  I  could  do  for 
his  horse.  I  replied  that  I  would  cure  him  on  the  fol- 
lowing Monday  morning  at  eight  o'clock.  At  the  time 
appointed,  the  owner  was  present  with  several  friends; 
and  as  I  had  a  shoe  ready  for  the  occasion,  the  shoe 
was  nailed  on  and  the  horse  pronounced  cured  in  five 
minutes.     I  got  into  the  buggy  with  the  owner  and  the 


74  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

horse  was  driven  six  miles,  going  perfectly  sound  all 
the  time ;  and  on  our  return  home  the  owner  drove  to. 
Professor  McEachran's  office,  who  inspected  the  horse 
and  could  but  acknowledge  that  the  animal  was  not  then 
lame. 

The  Explanation. 

133.  The  explanation  of  the  cause  and  the  cure  in 
this  case  is  simple  enough.  The  hoof  at  the  outside  of 
the  toe  was  too  long  and  too  high  compared  with  the 
inside  heels,  and  this  being  re-dressed  by  the  paring- 
knife  a  shoe  was  put  on  that  was  highest  in  the  centre,  the 
centre-bearing  shoe,  in  fact ;  this  took  the  weight  entirely 
off  the  weak  spot  and  enabled  him  to  travel  without  pain 
or  lameness.  The  owner  complimented  me  by  saying 
that  but  for  the  explanation  he  could  readily  have  be- 
lieved that  the  age  of  miracles  had  not  quite  passed  away ;. 
and  the  incident  is  referred  to  here  to  prove  that  lame- 
ness in  many  cases  where  there  is  no  manifestation  of  dis- 
ease is  often  but  the  result  of  weakness  induced  by  want, 
of  balance  in  the  feet.  Horses  can  bear  some  amount, 
of  neglect  in  this  matter  without  serious  results,  but  the. 
foot  is  constantly  outgrowing  the  limits  of  endurance. 
Of  course  this  adverse  leverage  at  the  toe,  or  at  the  in- 
side or  outside  of  the  toe,  is  felt  the  most  when  the  foot, 
is  at  a  backward  angle  at  the  instant  it  leaves  the  ground. 

Adding  Fuel  to  Fire. 

134.  I  deem  it  to  have  been  conclusively  shown, 
that  undue  height  of  the  toe  causes  navicular  disease;; 
and  pointing  with  one  or  both  feet  to  the  leading  symp- 
tom of  it;  but  when  length  or  extension  of  the  toe  is. 
conjoined  with  height  it  is  like  adding  fuel  to  fire.  Ob- 
viously the  cause  of  the  trouble  is  of  a  mechanical  nature: 
and  should  be  counteracted  by  measures  of  the  sam& 
nature. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  75 


Rustication 


135.  Is  not  always  beneficial  to  a  lame  horse.  Every- 
thing proper  may  have  been  done ;  but  the  injured  parts 
might  have  become  so  weakened  by  disease  that  it  is  a 
positive  cruelty,  although  no  cruelty  is  intended,  to  turn 
a  horse  out  to  grass  and  compel  him  to  unduly  exert 
his  injured  limb  in  order  to  pick  up  what  may  be  hardly 
enough  to  keep  him  alive.  When  the  alternatives  of 
choice  are  hunger  or  pain,  I  believe  they  will  often  en- 
dure the  pangs  of  hunger  rather  than  the  suffering  and 
pain  caused  by  the  exertions  necessary  to  gather  their 
food. 

Injuries  of  tendons  and  ligaments  need  rest  to  facil- 
itate the  healing  processes  of  nature.  I  believe  that 
for  very  many  cases  turned  out  under  such  circumstances 
it  is  a  virtual  sentence  of  death,  so  many  of  them  remain- 
ing lame  for  the  remainder  of  their  days. 

Long  Strides  and  Short  Strides. 

136.  One  of  my  aims  in  forming  a  shoe  for  the  pre- 
vention and  cure  of  foot  diseases  has  been  to  lessen  the 
amount  of  irritation  produced  by  the  movements  of  the 
pedal  joint  while  the  animal  is  in  motion,  as  I  found 
that  with  an  injured  joint  the  animal  either  could  not  or 
would  not  take  a  long  step.  A  long  stride  must  neces- 
sarily produce  a  long  sweep  of  the  joint,  and  the  longei 
the  sweep  the  greater  the  degree  of  pain  and  lameness. 

Rationale  of  Rocking  Motion. 

137.  This  suggested  the  idea  of  a  rock-over  motion 
which  would  not  call  for  so  much  movement  in  the  joint. 
By  means  of  the  rocking  shoe  the  pedal  joint  is  aided 
very  much  in  this  respect,  not  having  to  rotate  so  far — 


-jG  THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE. 

a  substitute  being  found  for  it  which  is  placed  upon  the 
external  surface  of  the  foot;  and  the  result  is  more  or 
less  of  rest  to  the  injured  parts,  even  while  the  horse  is 
in  motion.  It  must  be  readily  apprehended  that  as  a 
forced  articulation  is  the  exclusive  cause  of  the  disease 
under  consideration  and  of  its  permanent  persistence, 
a  limitation  of  those  movements  ought  to  be  beneficial ; 
and  it  is  so.  The  rocker  shoe  enables  a  horse  to  resume 
slow  work  at  once,  and  it  gives  him  more  ease  and  bet- 
ter health  than  he  could  gain  by  standing  in  a  stall  from 
■day  to  day.  Viewed  mechanically  the  rocking  shoe 
shortens  the  prying  end  of  the  lever,  causing  the  weight 
to  be  lifted  nearer  the  fulcrum,  and  increasing  the 
power  to  lift  and  rotate  the  joints  of  the  leg  and  foot 
many  times  over. 

A  Perfect  Balance. 

138.  Great  relief  is  always  obtained  immediately  by 
simply  lowering  the  toe,  as  that  causes  an  abatement  of 
the  pain  while  the  animal  is  in  a  standing  position ;  that 
is,  supposing  the  case  to  be  one  of  navicular  disease ;  but 
unless  the  leverage  caused  by  both  high  and  long  toe  be 
also  judiciously  reduced  and  kept  reduced,  no  permanent 
cure  can  be  effected.  No  veterinary  writer  that  I  am 
aware  of  has  ever  suggested  any  device,  mechanical  or 
otherwise,  for  the  purpose  of  realizing  this  intention. 
Veterinarians  will  find  an  important  addition  to  their 
list  of  mechanical  appliances  in  the  rocker  shoe.  With 
this  shoe  no  horse  points,  which  proves  that  the  horse  en- 
joys a  perfect  balance  while  using  it.  The  locomotive 
on  wheels  when  in  perfect  order  needs  its  perpetual  sup- 
ply of  oil  to  maintain  the  harmonious  working  of  its 
different  parts ;  the  locomotive  on  legs  only  requires  its 
bearing  and  carrying  surfaces  to  be  kept  level  and  in  a 
well-balanced  condition  by  the  judicious  use  of  the  rasp 
and  knife,  to  insure  perfect  equipoise  of  all  the  forces 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  J? 

that  animate  the  vital  machinery  of  the  horse,  and  to  be 
self -oiling  into  the  bargain. 

Points  and  Facts  for  Horseshoers. 

139.  Recognizing  the  fact  that  the  great  need  of  the 
times  as  regards  horses  and  horseshoers  is  improve- 
ments in  shoes  and  shoeing,  I  will  say  a  little  more 
upon  the  facts  and  principles,  the  practice  of  which  has 
the  indorsement  of  many  who  have  very  large  interests 
in  horses,  financial  and  otherwise;  and  which  I  hope  will 
aid  hereafter  in  the  development  of  a  universal  system 
of  shoeing,  which  will  convert  a  bane  into  a  blessing  as 
regards  horses,  and  thereby  emphasize  the  importance 
and  value  of  horseshoeing  in  the  public  estimation. 

A  New  York  College  of  Horseshoers. 

140.  The  consideration  of  so  many  separate  diseases 
prevents  my  making  as  full  an  exposition  of  those  facts 
and  principles  as  I  could  have  wished,  but  I  shall  hope 
that  a  start  has  been  made  in  the  right  direction ;  and  I 
hope  that  some  teacher  or  leader  may  arise  with  the  lit- 
erary ability  necessary  to  consolidate  all  known  and  es- 
tablished facts  into  one  universal  and  enduring  system 
of  horseshoeing.  The  establishment  of  a  college  of 
horseshoeing  would  then  become  easy  of  accomplish- 
ment. A  co-operative  company  could  easily  be  formed 
for  this  purpose. 

The  following  facts  and  observations  will  afford  some 
idea  of  the  principles  and  facts  of  shoeing  with  which 
my  name  has  been  identified  for  the  last  twenty-five 
years  in  the  city  of  New  York. 

The  foot  of  the  horse  has  different  attributes  and  re- 
quirements which  ought  to  be  perfectly  understood  by 
those  who  undertake  to  practise  the  important  art  of 
horseshoeing.      Horseshoeing  should  be  a  twofold  art: 


78  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

it  should  embrace  hygiene  and  pathologic  shoeing  or 
treatment  of  the  foot.  He  should  be  well  grounded  in 
the  principles  of  shoeing  in  health  and  disease.  The 
locomotory  organs  as  high  as  the  elbow  should  constitute 
the  rightful  domain  of  horseshoeing;  as  the  first  and 
last  necessity  of  a  horse  either  in  health  or  disease  is 
shoeing  adapted  to  his  different  requirements  whether 
he  be  sound  or  lame.  All  outside  of  that  domain  should 
be  the  fieM  of  the  veterinarian.  But  horseshoeing  will 
never  attain  to  this  ideal  eminence  until  there  is  a  col- 
lege for  teaching  the  higher  branches  of  knowledge 
which  underlie  the  true  art  of  horseshoeing,  and  domi- 
nate the  locomotory  system  of  the  horse.  This  would 
involve  a  high  degree  of  technical  education ;  and  that  is 
the  great  need  of  the  time  for  horseshoers  and  their  art. 
141.  Horseshoeing  requires  the  recognition  and  un- 
derstanding of  three  principles,  namely,  levelling,  sym- 
metrizing, and  balancing. 

Levelling. 

The-  ordinary  idea  of  levelling  is  simply  to  remove 
the  inequalities  upon  the  plantar  surface  of  the  foot  re- 
gardless of  symmetry  or  balance.  What  the  dead  level 
of  its  foundation  is  to  a  building,  the  perfect  level  is  to 
the  body  of  the  horse.  This  is  the  first  requisite  of  a 
perfect  balance.  Men  whose  proper  business  is  wagon- 
building  sometimes  engage  in  horseshoeing.  These 
men  and  boys,  many  of  them,  could  hardly  define  the 
limits  of  the  frog,  the  sole,  and  the  wall,  and  yet  they 
are  permitted  to  jeopardize  values  amounting  to  mil- 
lions of  dollars  every  day  in  the  week.  The  college  of 
horseshoers,  which  should  instruct  in  practice  as  well 
as  theory,  and  with  power  to  grant  diplomas,  would  soon 
correct  this  evil. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  white  line  is  a  safe  rule  to  go 
by ;  but  after  this  is  reached  care  must  be  taken  to  leave 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  79 

"the  foot  a  perfect  level — not  a  plane  surface  more  or  less 
oblique,  but  a  dead  level  fore  and  aft  and  from  side  to 
side.  I  have  read  of  sandals  and  plates;  and  although 
iron  plates  are  in  vogue  in  some  Eastern  countries,  I 
don't  think  they  have  reached  the  acme  of  perfection 
there  any  more  than  we  have  in  our  Western  civiliza- 
tions in  regard  to  horseshoeing.  I  have  read  nothing 
about  them  anywhere  suggestive  of  the  ideas  of  level- 
ling, symmetrizing,  or  balancing  the  foot,  their  idea 
being  simple  protection  against  wear  and  tear.  Horse- 
shoeing must  reach  a  higher  plane  than  this  before  it 
•can  satisfy  the  requirements  of  European  and  American 
'communities.  My  opinion  is  that  when  the  dead  level 
of  the  foot  and  its  perfect  balance  in  all  directions  is 
fully  understood  and  generally  practised,  we  shall  hear 
of  greater  speed  and  capacity  for  endurance  among  rac- 
ing and  trotting  horses  than  we  have  yet  witnessed ; 
that  there  will  be  physical  and  mental  developments  in 
horses  not  dreamed  of  in  the  common  philosophy ;  that 
lameness  will  virtually  become  a  reminiscence ;  horses 
will  enjoy  better  health  and  condition ;  people  who  own 
horses  will  have  less  plagues  and  losses  from  such  prop- 
erty and  as  a  consequence  more  pleasures  and  gains;  and 
though  last  in  the  list,  not  the  least  important  result 
will  be  a  higher  respect  for  horseshoeing  as  an  art — for 
it  must  needs  be  through  the  instrumentality  of  im- 
proved horseshoeing  that  these  benefits  can  ever  be 
brought  about. 

Symmetry. 

142.  Symmetry  concerns  the  balance  of  the  foot  from 
another  point  of  view.  The  foot  may  be  a  dead  level 
without  being  properly  balanced.  A  perfectly  balanced 
foot  laterally  is  one  in  which  the  central  line  of  bear- 
ing runs  through  to  the  toe  and  divides  the  foot  into 
two  equal  halves.     This  means  equal  weight  on  both 


80  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

sides,  and  equal  weight  implies  a  perfect  balance;  and' 
this  is  the  just  requirement  of  every  horse,  and  espe- 
cially so  for  horses  which  are  kept  for  speed.  The  knife 
and  rasp  must  be  in  requisition  to  produce  symmetry, 
which  means  a  perfect  lateral  balance.  If  the  foot  is  so 
misshapen  as  to  make  it  hard  to  symmetrize,  the  object 
aimed  at,  a  perfect  balance,  must  be  effected  as  far  pos- 
sible by  the  judicious  adjustment  of  the  shoe,  which  will 
be  referred  to  later  on. 

Balance. 

143.  The  essential  importance  of  a  perfect  balance, 
if  we  wish  to  secure  perfect  ease  or  perfect  action  for 
the  horse,  cannot  be  overestimated ;  and  this  idea,  beau 
ideal  I  might  have  said,  will  be  emphasized  in  the  fol- 
lowing observations. 

You  may  have  a  foot  perfectly  level  and  yet  not  per- 
fectly balanced.  This  must  be  effected  by  the  perfect 
adjustment  of  the  shoe  in  the  fore  and  aft  direction,  all 
other  things  being  equal.  These  three  ideas,  levelling, 
symmetrizing,  and  balancing,  should  permeate  every 
nook  and  corner  of  a  horseshoer's  mentality,  if  he  would 
remove  horseshoeing  from  the  domain  of  empiricism 
and  place  it  in  the  region  of  science  and  art  where  it 
ought  to  be.  It  should  be  his  first  and  last  strdy,  as 
it  is  the  most  vital  and  essential  portion  of  his  an. 

Lack  of  Balance. 

144.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  many  horses  shod  in 
the  best  manner  under  ordinary  methods  of  shoeing 
evince  a  restlessness  and  uneasiness  in  their  feet,  with- 
out any  sign  of  active  disease,  which  lack  of  balance,  I 
think,  will  sufficiently  account  for.  It  is  not  uncommon 
for  shoes  to  be  removed  under  the  impression  that  they 
have  been  hammered  on  too  tight,  or  that  a  nail  might 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  8 1 

"have  crowded  the  sensitive  tissues  somewhere  or  other, 
and  nothing  being  discovered,  the  shoe  is  reset  and  the 
cause  of  the  uneasiness  remains  as  great  a  mystery  as 
ever. 

Mr.  Bonner  dictates  his  own  shoeing,  because  horse- 
shoers  have  not  undergone  the  technical  and  manual 
training  which  alone  would  inspire  confidence  to  leave 
the  performance  of  that  work  to  others  without  super- 
vision. 

Perfect  Balance. 

145.  Further,  the  value  of  a  perfect  balance  to  horses 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  horses  have  no  inclination  to  point 
with  their  feet  when  they  enjoy  a  perfect  balance,  any 
more  than  the  animals  which  have  ball  pads  in  their 
feet. 

A  perfect  balance  is  perfect  repose  and  rest.  It  is 
astonishing  to  some  how  horses  recuperate  their  muscu- 
lar energies  while  standing  on  the  centre-bearing  shoe ; 
and  who  does  not  know  how  the  muscular  tissues  actu- 
ally waste  away  under  the  maleficent  effects  of  a  lame 
foot,  producing  a  condition  termed  atrophy  ?  It  would 
take  an  abler  pen  than  mine  to  do  justice  to  this  part  of 
the  subject. 

Effects  of  an  Unbalanced  Foot. 

146.  An  unbalanced  foot  is  the  fruitful  cause  of 
nearly  every  form  of  lameness  to  which  the  foot  is  liable,. 
excepting  those  from  accidents.  In  support  of  this  state- 
ment I  have  given  a  list  of  nine  different  diseases,  de- 
fects, or  deformities  (paragraph  6$)  arising  from  a  want 
of  balance  produced  by  the  toe  being  too  high. 

I  will  now  present  you  with  a  category  of  similar 
ills  which  proceed  from  the  heels  being  too  high,  number- 
ing eight,  following  which  will  be  an  inventory  of  ail- 
6 

n5*\ 


82  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

ments  distinctly  traceable  to  a  lack  of  lateral  balance, 
which  will  be  referred  to  as  the  inside  portion  of  the  foot 
being  too  high,  numbering  twenty-seven;  and  closing  the 
procession  with  a  catalogue  of  maladies  due  to  the  out- 
side portion  of  the  foot  being  too  high,  thus  making  a  total 
of  fifty-four  abnormal  conditions  which  I  charge  to  the 
account  of  an  unbalanced  foot. 

Maladies  Proceeding  from  the  Heels  Being 
Too  High. 

147.  Refer  to  Cut  2. 

1.  Corn  in  one  or  both  feet  on  account  of  treading 
too  much  upon  the  heels. 

2.  Scratches  caused  by  the  jarring  of  the  feet  and 
producing  fever  in  the  soft  tissues  between  the  heels. 

3.  Knee-spring. 

4.  Front-foot  fissure. 

5.  Pointing  backward. 

6.  Ossification  of  lateral  cartilages. 

7.  Quarter-crack. 

8.  Inability  to  extend  during  fast  progression ;  thus 
forcing  the  horse  to  step  too  much  under  his  body. 

Diseased  Conditions  Due  to  the  Inside  Portion 
of  the  Foot  Being  Too  High. 

148.  1.  Warping  the  hoof,  causing  contraction  of  the 
outside  heels  and  widening  the  inside  heels  at  the  same 
time. 

2.  Bending  or  bowing  the  fetlocks,  hocks,  and  knees 
outwardly. 

3.  Abnormal  enlargement  of  tissues  and  hoof,  the 
inside  heel. 

4.  Corn  on  the  inside  heel. 

5.  Quarter-crack  of  inside  heel  or  quarter. 

6.  Deformity  of  the  inside  heel  by  lengthening. 


THE    FOOT   OF    THE    HORSE.  83 

7.  Causing  the  feet  to  stand  too  close  to  each  other 
resting  or  travelling. 

8.  Causing  ringbone  on  the  inside  of  the  pastern. 

9.  Causing  ossified  cartilages. 

10.  Stumbling  both  before  and  behind. 

1 1.  Sprain  of  the  suspensory  ligament  on  the  outside 
of  the  fetlock. 

12.  Windgall  on  the  outside  of  the  fetlock. 

13.  Knuckling  before  and  behind. 

14.  Splent  immediately  under  the  knee  on  the  inside. 

1 5 .  Knee-sprung  outwardly. 

16.  vSpavin  and  deformity  of  the  hoof  of  the  same 
foot. 

17.  Soft  tumor  on  the  inside  and  inclining  to  the 
front  of  the  knee. 

18.  Interfering  before  and  behind. 

19.  Boxing  or  hitting  the  knee. 

20.  Hitching  behind. 

2  1 .  Causing  the  hind  foot  to  tread  between  the  two 
fore  ones. 

22.  Causing  the  head  to  be  carried  on  the  same  side 
that  is  carried  inward. 

23.  Causing  the  horse  to  drive  on  one  line  and  to 
cross  the  road. 

24.  Bony  deposits  on  the  inner  and  fore  part  of  the 
fetlock,  called  high  ringbone. 

2  5 .  Causing  one  foot  to  rest  against  or  upon  the  other. 

26.  Springhalt. 

27.  Bog-spavin  and  thoroughpin. 

Diseases  Caused  by  the  Outside  Portion  of  the 
Foot  Being  Too  High. 

149.   1.  Corn  on  same  side. 

2.   Enlargement  of  the  quarter,  and  ossification  of 
the  lateral  cartilage  of  the  same  quarter. 


84  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

3.  Increased  growth  of  hoof  on  the  same  side  com- 
pared with  the  inside. 

4.  Ringbone  partly  in  front  and  toward  the  outside 
of  the  pastern. 

5.  Windgall  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  fetlock  in 
both  fore  and  hind  legs. 

6.  Rupture  of  inside  suspensory  ligaments  of  both 
fore  and  hind  legs. 

7.  Cause  of  travelling  too  wide  apart  of  both  fore 
and  hind  feet. 

8.  Cause  of  an  outside  spavin,  or  a  soft  spavin  oppo- 
site the  ordinary  spavin. 

9.  Cause  of  a  bony  deposit  on  the  outside  of  the  fet- 
lock, and  partly  in  front  of  the  same,  which  corresponds 
with  the  high  ringbone  of  the  opposite  side. 

10.  Ossification  of  lateral  cartilages. 

The  Why  and  the  Wherefore. 

150.  Being  unduly  high  on  the  inside  portion  of  the 
foot  exposes  a  horse  to  many  more  ailments  than  undue 
height  at  any  other  part  of  the  foot,  or  circumference  of 
the  foot,  for  the  following  reasons,  which  have  been 
given,  but  which  I  will  take  leave  to  repeat.  Anatomi- 
cal reasons  prevent  a  horse  from  pointing  directly  in- 
ward. Imagine  if  you  can  a  horse  standing  with  his 
fore  feet  close  together.  His  chest  is  in  the  way ;  he 
may  cross  one  leg  before  or  behind  the  other,  but  he 
cannot  point  directty  inward;  if  he  did  his  body  would 
oscillate  from  side  to  side  whether  travelling  or  at  rest, 
as  the  base  of  support  would  not  cover  as  much  space  as 
would  be  necessary  for  stability  or  repose,  thereby  caus- 
ing the  horse  to  fall  during  motion. 

Being  high  oil  the  outside  portion  of  the  foot  gives 
him  less  oscillation  and  more  stability,  and  enables 
him  to  obtain  more  relief  from  pointing,  while  in  pain. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  85 

The  disadvantage  of  being  too  high  on  the  inside  makes 
the  lameness  more  sudden  and  acute  when  it  proceeds 
from  that  part  than  from  any  other  part. 

Pointing. 

151.  Pointing  is  an  instinct  of  the  horse,  which  he 
does  to  find  relief,  by  distributing  his  weight  equally  on 
all  parts  of  his  foot,  or  joint,  and  in  every  direction  but 
one  he  can  find  relief,  and  in  that  one  direction  he  can 
find  no  relief;  and  that  direction  is  directly  inward ;  and 
this  is  the  reason  that  in  those  other  directions  the  dis- 
eases are  not  so  severe  or  so  numerous. 

Symmetrization 

152.  Calls  for  a  few  more  observations  which  I 
omitted  in  the  paragraph  on  that  subject.  Want  of 
symmetry  alone  is  a  common  cause  of  lameness.  Perfec- 
tion in  the  act  of  shoeing  can  never  be  attained  until 
this  and  all  it  implies  is  perfectly  understood.  Sym- 
metry and  balance  may  be  considered  as  synonymous 
in  their  meaning;  either  implies  a  just  distribution  of 
the  weight  to  be  carried  by  every  structure  of  the  leg, 
as  without  it  one  structure  would  be  favored  at  the  ex- 
pense of  another.  It  implies  also  an  equalized  bearing 
in  every  joint.  If  you  regard  the  foot  as  a  circle  having 
two  intersections  at  right  angles  through  the  centre, 
the  foot  as  level  as  still  water  and  the  central  line  of 
bearing  through  the  leg  striking  the  circle  at  the  central 
point,  you  will  get  my  idea  of  the  mechanical  require- 
ments of  a  horse  in  the  process  of  shoeing. 

Twisting  the  Pedal  Joint. 

153.  According  to  the  rule  laid  down,  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  wall  of  the  foot,  after  being  balanced,  should 
be  at  an  equal  distance  all  around  the  margin  of  the 


86  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

pedal  bone — that  is  to  say,  there  must  be  no  fulness  at 
any  one, point  or  scantiness  at  another;  for  the  reason 
that  when  a  foot  is  out  of  proportion  laterally,  when 
travelling  on  soft  roads  the  narrowest  part  will  sink  into 
the  ground,  while  the  broadest  part  would  become  cor- 
respondingly elevated  and.  float,  as  it  were,  over  the  top 
of  the  soft  ground ;  and  this  would  occasion  a  twisting  of 
the  pedal  joint,  which  would  be  less  likely  to  occur  with 
a  well-symmetrized  and,  therefore,  a  well-balanced  foot. 
Other  points  of  view  may  be  presented  of  the  evils  of 
lack  of  lateral  balance.  A  foot  unbalanced  in  this  way 
is  liable  to  all  of  the  diseases  which  have  been  enumer- 
ated as  emanating  from  want  of  the  fore-and-aft  bal- 
ances. Soft  roads  or  soft  bedding  will  not  help  such 
cases,  but  rather  aggravate  them. 

Only  Two  Classes  of  Disease. 

154.  It  may  be  well  to  remember  that  the  ailments 
to  which  the  horse  is  liable  are  not  changed  in  their 
nature  by  different  forms  of  feet,  from  whatever  quarter 
of  the  foot  they  may  proceed.  They  are  only  acceler- 
ated in  different  degrees  by  certain  forms  of  feet,  as  we 
shall  see  more  particularly  when  we  come  to  treat  of 
the  diseases  of  the  foot  separately. 

It  will  be  instructive  to  contrast  the  effects  of  the  two 
forms  of  hoof  represented  in  Figs.  2  and  5.  One  has  a 
convex  and  the  other  a  concave  outline  on  the  front 
surface.  I  have  seen  horses  whose  hoofs  have  curved 
inwardly  half  an  inch,  and  some  outwardly  the  same 
distance,  from  the  straight  line.  It  is  well  understood,  I 
am  sure,  that  the  normal  position  of  the  laminated 
structures  is  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom  of  the  wall,  whether  curved  inwardly  or  out- 
wardly, so  that  it  is  possible  for  the  points  of  tjie  toes, 
of  the  pedal    bones  in  those  cases   to   vary   in    height 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  87 

an  inch  or  more.  It  is  a  fact  that  navicular  disease  is 
always  the  attendant  of  the  elevated  toe,  and  never  of 
the  elevated  heel;  showing  the  natural  and  necessary 
connection  between  high  toe  and  navicular  disease. 

I  wish  to  record  an  observation  in  reference  to  a  con- 
dition met  with  occasionally  when  a  horse  may  have  both 
forward  feet  perfectly  sound,  yet  having  a  tendency  to 
grow  unequally.  One  foot  may  be  like  Cut  No.  I,  the 
other  like  Cut  No.  2.  While  No.  1  has  a  tendency  to 
grow  equally  all  round,  No.  2  has  a  tendency  to  grow 
higher  at  the  heel  than  at  the  toe.  The  result  of  this 
unequal  growth  is  to  be  seen  when  the  animal  is  feeding 
from  the  ground  by  his  extending  his  foot  like  No.  2 
backward  of  a  vertical  line,  while  the  foot  like  No.  1  is 
extended  correspondingly  forward.  A  horse  having  feet 
of  this  nature  will  necessarily  have  an  awkward  gait, 
the  foot  like  No.  2  being  carried  more  under  his  body 
than  its  fellow,  rendering  him  perpetually  liable  to 
break  in  consequence  of  this  unequal  balance  of  his  fore 
limbs.  These  faults  of  action  can  be  corrected  by  lower- 
ing the  heels  of  the  foot,  like  No.  2,  until  the  animal 
stands  upon  it  as  perpendicularly  as  upon  the  opposite 
foot. 

Spavin. 

Preliminary  Remarks. 

155.  I  hope  the  spirit  of  investigation  and  the  desire 
for  proof  of  the  theory  I  have  advanced  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  foot  diseases  of  the  horse  will  be  aroused 
in  the  minds  of  all  who  may  read  this  book,  especially 
the  teachers  and  writers  on  veterinary  pathology,  espe- 
cially the  pathology  of  the  foot.  I  hope  I  am  not  too 
sanguine  in  thinking  that  a  gleam  of  light  and  truth 
may  be  discovered  here  and  there  in  these  pages  that  will 
assist  them  in  their  endeavors  to  efface  some  of  the  un- 


88  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

certainties  and  perplexities  of  the  foot-pathology  of  the 
horse.  Many  books  have  been  written  upon  the  general 
subject  of  lameness  of  horses,  but  hitherto  with  but  neg- 
ative and  not  very  satisfactory  results  to  horses. 

With  these  preliminary  remarks  I  will  proceed  to 
the  consideration  of  the  very  common  disease  called 
spavin. 

The  Origin  of  Spavin. 

156.  The  term  spavin  applies  to  a  bony  deposit  upon 
the  small  bones  of  the  hock  joint,  on  the  inward  and  for- 
ward aspect  of  the  leg.  Spavin  has  a  common  cause 
with  all  other  bony  deposits  such  as  ringbone,  splent, 
and  other  forms  of  exostosis — this  word  is  synonymous 
with  bony  deposits — which  will  be  referred  to  later  on. 

All  bony  deposits  are  the  effects  of  an  unbalanced 
pedal  bone  caused  by  certain  disproportions  of  the  hoof. 

All  bony  deposits  always  manifest  themselves  in  line 
with  the  most  elevated  part  of  the  hoof,  and  nowhere  else. 

Contrariwise  all  sprains  of  tendons,  and  lesions  of 
ligaments  and  bursal  enlargements,  are  always  in  line 
with  the  lowest  part  of  the  foot,  and  nowhere  else;  and 
this  leads  me  to  say  that  I  have  no  objection  to  my 
theory  being  called  the  one-bone  theory,  from  the  fact  that 
I  maintain  that  it  is  to  the  abnormal  displacement  of 
one  bone,  the  pedal  bone — in  other  words,  an  unbalanced 
pedal  bone — to  which  all  the  fifty-four  diseases  before 
enumerated  are  primarily  due. 

A  New  Classification  of  Foot  Diseases. 

157.  If  my  theory  be  correct,  diseases  may  be  sim- 
plified very  much  in  their  classification.  There  are  in 
reality  but  two  classes  of  diseases  in  the  locomotory 
organs  of  the  horse,  one  which  relates  to  hard  tissues,  as 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  89 

the  bones,  and  the  other  to  soft  tissues,  as  tendons,  liga- 
ments, and  ligamentous  structures.  Under  these  two 
heads  all  the  diseases  and  abnormalities  of  the  limb  and 
its  action  can  be  classified ;  and  all  of  them  of  both 
classes  can  be  traced  to  one  objective  point  or  bone — 
the  pedal  bone;  the  displacement  of  which  by  a  dispro- 
portioned  foot  is  a  fact  of  positive  demonstration. 

The  One-Bone  Theory. 

158.  This  proposition  I  think  has  been  conclusively- 
proved,  but  it  will  be  proved  again  and  again  from  dif- 
ferent points  of  view.  I  care  not  where  I  take  up  the 
question ;  whether  I  reason  from  the  effect  to  the  cause 
or  the  cause  to  the  effect,  it  is  always  the  same  conclu- 
sion, there  can  be  no  other,  and  for  that  reason  I  think 
it  must  be  right.  That  conclusion  is  as  true  of  all  other 
diseases  of  the  foot  as  of  navicular  disease,  which  has 
occupied  so  much  of  our  attention.  I  shall  find  it  nec- 
essary in  my  consideration  of  the  different  diseases  of 
the  foot  and  leg  to  state  and  restate  these  basic  facts,  as 
I  might  call  them,  in  order  to  make  my  arguments  com- 
plete and  conclusive. 

Spavin  may  be  referred  to  as  a  separate  disease  or 
one  of  a  class  of  similar  diseases.  The  latitude  I  al- 
lowed myself  in  the  discussion  of  the  navicular  disease 
will  not  be  necessary  in  the  consideration  of  spavin,  as 
many  facts  are  now  understood  which  will  throw  light 
■on  the  rationale  of  both  diseases — indeed,  I  may  say  of 
all  diseases. 

As  some  further  compensation  for  this  discursive 
style,  I  hope  it  will  be  remembered  favorably  that  I 
have  endeavored  to  avoid  the  use  of  technical  terms, 
and  have  employed  language  suitable  to  readers  of  aver- 
age intelligence.  All  the  readers  of  my  book  will  not 
be  learned  men. 


90  THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 


Origin  of  Spavin. 

159.  Like  all  other  bone  diseases,  spavin  originates 
primarily  in  a  particular  deformity  of  the  hoof  at  one 
particular  point,  which  causes  a  displacement  of  one 
particular  bone,  in  one  particular  direction ;  and  this 
displacement  causes  action  and  reaction  in  the  same 
direction  upon  the  joints  and  tissues  above  it,  to  pro- 
duce undue  and  unequal  strain  of  tendons,  ligaments, 
and  ligamentous  structures ;  and  a  corresponding  com- 
pression of  the  bones,  Avhich  constitute  the  moving  ma- 
chinery of  the  leg. 

The  Hock  Joint 

160.  And  its  diseases,  like  the  pedal  joint  and  its' 
maladies,  seem  to  have  puzzled  veterinary  pathologists 
very  much  in  the  past;  but  I  think  it  need  not  be  very 
much  of  a  puzzle  in  the  future  with  the  key  to  it  which 
I  have,  or  shall  furnish  to  every  reader  before  I  have 
done. 

The  subject  has  afforded  the  occasion  for  the  dis- 
play of  much  brilliant  writing  on  the  anatomical  and 
physiological  peculiarities  of  the  hock  joint;  but  the 
purely  mechanical  aspect  of  the  subject  has  recci  ;cJ  but 
scant  consideration.  When  veterinary  writers  cannot 
account  for  the  origin  of  a  diseased  condition,  they  seem, 
to  take  a  sort  of  despairing  refuge  in  heredity. 

I  suppose  I  must  ask  and  answer  the  customary- 
question,  What  is  a  spavin?  A  spavin,  then,  is  a  bony 
enlargement  upon  the  small  bones  of  the  hock,  on  the 
inner  and  forward  aspect  of  the  leg.  This  is  the  best 
short  definition  I  can  give;  the  why  and  the  zvJicrefore 
of  its  existence,  however,  will  not  be  quite  so  brief.  As 
regards  its 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  9 1 


Symptoms, 


161.  In  its  earliest  stage  a  slight  lameness  may  man- 
ifest itself,  and  there  be  no  symptoms  whatever  to  de- 
note the  seat  of  pain  that  causes  the  lameness  except  a 
slight  increase  of  temperature,  which  only  the  initiated 
could  detect.  At  this  stage  the  cause  being  understood, 
and  the  cure  in  the  form  of  a  rocker  shoe  applied  and 
kept  up,  the  lameness  disappears  forever.  This  will  be 
a  novel  theory  and  a  surprising  fact  to  many  veterinary 
practitioners,  I  have  no  doubt.  As  the  disease  progresses 
the  temperature  and  the  lameness  increase.  Whether 
standing  or  moving,  the  horse  evinces  pain,  and  if  he 
point  it  will  be  forward  and  inward,  in  exactly  the 
same  direction  as  the  location  or  seat  of  pain  in  the 
hock ;  and  if  forced  to  move  over  quickly  from  one  side- 
of  the  stall  to  the  other,  he  may  hop  over  on  the  sound 
leg.  When  led  at  a  walk,  the  step,  as  a  rule,  is  made 
in  front  of  a  vertical  line  drawn  from  the  hip,  and  the 
heel  of  the  lame  foot  or  leg  does  not  dwell  upon  the 
ground  backward  of  this  line ;  and  sometimes  the  animal 
walks  on  his  toe  with  his  flanks  drawn  in.  The  horse 
with  a  spavin  hesitates  to  lie  down,  and  when  down  is 
reluctant  to  rise. 

Some  horses  affected  by  spavin  in  both  legs  enjoy 
perfect  health  otherwise,  but  require  assistance  in  get- 
ting up,  and  are  able  to  perform  much  slow  work. 

Inherited  Forms  of  Hock. 

162.  There  are  inherited  forms  of  hock,  which  pos- 
sibly predispose  to  spavin,  but  which  can  be  counter- 
acted by  suitable  showing.  Before  we  can  fully  under- 
stand the  causes  of  spavin  we  must  become  familiar 
with  the  mechanical  principles  which  are  involved  in. 


92  THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

the  production  of  that  abnormality.  As  every  form  of 
hock,  whether  straight,  crooked,  bent-in  or  bent-out,  is 
liable  to  that  morbid  condition,  it  might  fairly  be  asked 
why  this  is  so,  and  the  explanation  of  this  will,  I  think, 
unravel  some  other  tangled  questions  in  connection  with 
veterinary  foot-pathology. 

Suppose  we  take  a  horse  of  perfect  symmetry  of 
form :  a  line  falling  from  the  superior  to  the  inferior 
extremity  of  either  fore  or  hind  limbs  should  divide 
that  column,  including  the  foot,  into  two  equal  halves, 
and  as  long  as  these  remain  equal,  all  other  things 
being  equal,  we  shall  have  a  standard  form  for  power. 

The  most  perfect  horse  to-day  will  have  changed  his 
angles  of  bearing  on  the  ground  very  appreciably  in  one 
month's  time.  His  foot  will  grow  downward  and  for- 
ward one-third  part  of  an  inch  in  one  month,  and  it 
might  have  grown  unequally..  In  any  case  the  angle  of 
bearing  is  changed,  and  that  is  sufficient  to  disturb  the 
equipoise  of  the  pedal  bone ;  and  that  disturbance  acts 
and  reacts  upon  every  joint  and  every  tissue  of  the  limb. 
There  cannot  be  a  deviation  from  the  perfect  balance 
without  a  corresponding  detrimental  effect  upon  the 
working  parts  of  the  machine.  Power  must  be  dimin- 
ished. In  the  first  stages  of  the  departure  from  the 
natural  balance,  it  may  only  amount  to  fatigue  and 
weakness,  passing  gradually  into  lameness,  the  lame- 
ness often  disappearing  as  soon  as  the  foot  is  cut  down 
and  the  animal  is  reshod ;  in  such  cases  the  lameness  is 
said  to  be  intermitting,  disappearing  after  each  shoeing, 
and  appearing  again  when  the  foot  has  grown  out  of 
normal  proportions. 

Constant  Menace  of  Danger. 

163.  The  changes  which  are  the  most  productive  of 
weakness,  which  terminate  in  lameness,  are  those  con- 
nected  with   the    form    of    the    foot    itself.     The   foot, 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  93 

through  the  extreme  mobility  of  the  pedal  joint,  is  sus- 
ceptible to  more  changes  of  angle  and  therefore  is  more 
liable  of  departures  from  natural  conditions  than  any 
other  part  of  the  machine.  It  must  be  obvious  that 
unless  both  sides  of  the  foot  bear  equal  weight,  it  is 
because  one  side  is  wider  than  the  other,  and  that  the 
widest  part  will  have  to  carry  the  most  weight  and  sus- 
tain the  unequal  pressure,  and  that  this  unequal  pres- 
sure is  a  constant  menace  of  danger  to  both  sides  of  the 
foot.  This  condition  of  the  hoof  is  the  precursor  of 
spavin. 

A  foot  having  a  larger  bearing  surface  on  the  inside 
than  on  the  outside,  and  having  to  stand  upon  or  to 
move  over  soft  ground,  will  cause  a  greater  compression 
of  the  bones  of  the  leg  on  the  inside  than  when  standing- 
upon  or  moving  over  hard  ground,  for  the  reason  that 
the  narrowest  side  will  sink  into  the  ground  while  the 
broadest  will  remain  near  the  surface. 

Long  and  Short  Axes. 

164.  A  foot  may  be  unequally  divided  in  regard  to  its 
long  axis,  that  is,  from  the  toe  to  the  heel;  yet  as  long- 
as  the  foot  is  kept  level  and  the  animal  doing  only  slow 
work  the  spavin  may  develop  very  slowly  indeed,  and 
the  lameness  may  be  intermitting  in  its  character;  but 
if,  in  addition  to  abnormal  width  on  the  inside  of  the 
foot,  there  should  be  an  undue  elevation  under  the  inside 
toe-nail,  you  have  all  the  requisite  conditions  for  the 
production  of  a  spavin  of  the  first  order.  That  elevation 
at  the  inside  toe  will  increase  the  compression  of  the 
small  bones  of  the  hock  in  the  exact  ratio  of  its  growth ; 
and  will  give  a  twist  to  the  foot  besides  that  will  act  on 
every  joint  above  the  foot,  no  matter  whether  the  ground 
he  travels  on  be  hard  or  soft. 


94  THE    FOOT    OF   THE   HORSE. 

A  Cause  of  Spavin. 

165.  Again,  a  foot  may  be  equally  balanced  with  re- 
spect to  its  long  axis,  and  the  undue  elevation  at  the 
inside  of  the  toe  will  produce  compression  which  ter- 
minates in  spavin.  It  is  important  to  take  this  fact  into 
consideration  also,  that  the  greatest  amount  of  compres- 
sion of  the  bones  takes  place  at  the  instant  the  foot 
leaves  the  ground,  and  that  is  always  at  the  highest 
part;  so  that  I  think  it  is  demonstrable  from  this  that 
the  higher  and  longer  the  toe  is  on  the  inside,  the  greater 
will  be  the  force  of  compression  exerted  upon  the  small 
bones  of  the  hock  at  the  seat  of  spavin,  which  is  on  the 
inside  of  the  leg  also. 

Another  Cause  of  Spavin. 

166.  Again,  the  condition  of  any  foot  with  an  undue 
elevation  at  the  inside  toe  is  sometimes  aggravated  by  a 
contracted  outside  quarter.  This  contraction  has  a  two- 
fold injurious  effect  upon  the  outside  quarter:  it  both 
shortens  and  lowers  the  side  of  the  foot  to  which  it  be- 
longs. These  combined  effects  cause  more  weight  to  be 
thrown  on  the  inside  part  of  the  foot  and  increase  the 
pressure  upon  the  inside  toe.  In  this  manner  the  bal- 
ance on  the  transverse  or  short  axis  of  the  foot  is  de- 
stroyed, the  front  part  of  the  foot  being  made  thereby 
to  carry  more  than  its  due  share  of  weight,  and  this 
factor,  therefore,  aids  in  the  compression  of  the  small 
bones  of  the  hock,  the  final  effect  of  which  is  spavin. 

Great  Weight  Borne  by  One  Leg. 

167.  It  is  obvious  that  the  weight  of  the  animal 
must  be  carried  by  one  part  of  the  leg  or  another. 
Think  for  a  moment  of  the  weight  to  be  carried  on  each 
leg  by  a  horse  weighing  1,200  pounds.     Eight  hundred 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  95 

pounds  has  to  be  carried  by  the  fore  legs  and  400 
pounds  by  the  hind  legs.  In  motion  each  fore  leg  has 
to  carry  the  whole  800  pounds  by  turns ;  and  each  hind 
leg  has  to  carry  400  pounds  in  its  turn,  likewise.  Add 
to  this  the  force  acquired  by  momentum  and  that  of 
the  adverse  leverage  at  the  toe  that  has  to  be  overcome, 
and  you  have  at  least  a  force  of  resistance  equal  to  500 
pounds  weight,  which  the  jointed  bony  column  of  the 
leg  is  called  upon  to  sustain  at  every  step  the  hind  leg 
of  the  animal  takes  forward.  Consider  for  a  moment 
that  the  whole  leg  may  be  regarded  as  a  bow,  from  the 
stifle  to  the  extremity  of  the  toe,  and  that  the  weakest 
part  of  the  bow  is  the  centre  just  where  the  small  bones 
of  the  hock  are  situated,  and  that  these  small  bones 
receive  the  first  effects  of  that  great  compressive  and 
perhaps  concussive  force  of  500  pounds  weight,  and  you 
will  not  have  far  to  go  to  find  the  origin  of  spavin.  If 
you  are  in  search  of  a  theory  and  must  have  one,  I  sug- 
gest the  mechanical  origin  of  spavin  rather  than  hered- 
ity, excepting  as  to  conformation.  When  all  the  con- 
ditions, normal  and  abnormal,  which  I  have  described 
are  allowed  to  have  their  full  play,  the  point  from  which 
they  exert  their  greatest  force  upon  the  bony  structures 
of  the  leg  lies  directly  under  the  inside  toe  hole  of  the 
shoe,  and  of  all  the  bone  diseases  of  the  leg,  spavin  is 
perhaps  the  most  common  result.  I  might  add  to  this 
the  observation  that  the  conditions  that  conspire  to 
produce  spavin  are  all  aggravated  by  hoofs  of  a  very 
hard  and  compact  texture,  which  will  retain  their  rigid 
form  under  all  circumstances.  In  such  cases  a  horse 
can  become  spavined  without  shoes  as  well  as  with  them. 

Other  Causes  of  Spavin. 

168.  Again,  the  foot  may  be  perfect,  and  an  ill-made 
or  badly  fitted  shoe  may  cause  the  inside  toe  to  produce 
the  disease  or  to  aggravate  it  when  produced,  on  account 


g6  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

of  its  undue  height ;  or  they  may  be  fitted  too  close  and 
short  at  the  outside  heel,  which  produces  the  same  effect,, 
by  allowing  the  shoe  to  wear  faster  at  that  point,  and 
causing  the  inside  toe  to  take  more  pressure  of  weight 
as  it  leaves  the  ground. 

Conformation  a  Cause  of  Spavin. 

169.  Conformation  may  cause  spavin  to  appear  on. 
the  inside  or  outside  of  the  hock,  according  as  the  hock 
is  bent  inward  or  outward.  It  is  not  that  the  limb  is. 
weaker,  but  it  is  the  influence  which  such  ill-shapen 
joints  have  on  the  bearing  surface  of  the  foot.  The 
bend  of  the  hock  outwardly  has  a  tendency  to  warp  the 
hoof  inwardly,  and  to  cause  it  to  become  higher  and 
wider  on  the  inside  than  on  the  outside.  This  confor- 
mation must  constitute  a  strong  predisposition  to  spavin. 
A  horse  with  a  hock  bent  outwardly  must  tread  more- 
upon  the  outside  than  the  inside  quarter,  and  in  due 
time  a  warping  of  the  quarter  must  be  the  necessary 
result. 

Early  Bias. 

170.  In  my  search  for  the  causes  of  spavin,  I  have 
observed  what  I  think  may  possibly  give  the  first  bias 
to  the  form  of  foot  most  favorable  to  the  production  of 
that  condition.  I  have  watched  very  young  colts  while 
at  grass,  and  have  noticed  how  they  spread  their  fore 
legs  and  cross  their  hind  ones.  With  their  short  necks 
it  seemed  as  if  they  were  forced  to  assume  this  position 
to  enable  them  to  reach  the  grass.  This  crossing  of  the 
hind  legs  places  the  weight  of  the  animal  on  the  outside: 
walls  of  the  feet,  and  I  think  this  circumstance  alone, 
all  else  being  equal,  might  give  a  bias  or  tendency  to- 
the  form  of  the  foot  and  leg  most  favorable  to  the  devel- 
opment of  spavin.  Quite  apart  from  heredity,  this  ten- 
dency is  given  to  feet  in  different  stages  of  colthood  - 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  97 

and  they  might  appear  contracted,  but,  as  is  usual,  the 
colt  is  expected  to  grow  out  of  it ;  the  ultimate  effect 
not  being  foreseen.  These  hints  will  not  be  neglected 
by  an  observant  breeder  of  horses.  Causes  like  these, 
taking  place  after  birth,  may  be  mistaken  for  those  which 
occur  before  birth.  Cases  of  this  character  I  think  would 
very  likely  be  ascribed  to  heredity  by  Professor  Wil- 
liams, as  he  regards  heredity  as  the  primary  cause  of 
spavin.  Should  it  be  doubted  whether  the  bent-out 
variety  of  hock  predisposes  to  spavin  or  not,  it  might  be 
remarked  that  the  bent-in — commonly  called  the  cow- 
hock  or  cat-ham  variety — produces  bony  deposits  upon 
the  outside  of  the  hock  corresponding  to  those  upon  the 
inside,  and  which  have  been  named  outside  spavin.  Pro- 
fessor Williams  professes  to  have  a  specimen  of  this 
nature,  and  he  admits  that  he  cannot  assign  any  cause 
for  its  origin.  The  composition  of  this  outzvard  spavin 
is  first  cartilaginous  and  then  bony ;  but  when  discov- 
ered in  the  first  stage,  by  simply  lowering  and  narrow- 
ing the  outside  of  the  foot  it  can  be  counteracted  and 
dispersed. 

What  I  Have  Never  Seen. 

171.  This  shows  that  even  hereditary  causes  can  be 
counteracted  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  mechanical  in- 
genuity, when  all  the  facts  are  fully  understood.  I  have 
owned  horses  of  both  the  bent-out  and  bent-in  varieties 
of  hock,  but  by  shoeing  to  counteract  their  natural  ten- 
dency to  spavin  they  have  been  kept  totally  free  from 
that  and  all  other  diseases.  It  is  common  to  see  a 
spavin  on  one  side  of  a  hock,  but  I  have  never  yet  seen 
one  on  both  sides  of  the  hock  at  the  same  time ;  and  I 
have  never  yet  seen  a  spavin  on  either  side  but  that  the 
foot  is  either  the  highest  or  the  widest,  or  both  condi- 
tions may  be  combined  on  the  same  side  as  that  on 
which  the  spavin  is  located. 
7 


98  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  see  shoes  and  shoe- 
ing which  intensify  all  the  other  causes  of  spavin ;  and, 
as  I  have  somewhere  else  remarked,  no  kind  or  class  of 
horse  having  growing  feet  is  exempt  from  liability  to 
spavin. 

Professor  Williams  has  remarked  that  spavins  are 
rarely  seen  on  the  outside  of  the  hock,  and  this  fact 
must  have  made  his  single  specimen  specially  interest- 
ing and  valuable;  and  as  the  professor  does  not  hazard 
a  single  speculation  as  to  its  origin,  perhaps  the  fore- 
going explanation  will  enable  him  to  supply  an  omission 
in  the  next  edition  of  his  valuable  work. 

Further  Observations  on  Spavin. 

172.  I  will  continue  my  observations  on  spavin  and 
its  causes  a  little  further  in  order  to  embody  some  points 
and  facts  of  observation  attending  the  development  of 
that  disease,  which  I  have  not  referred  to  sufficiently  in 
preceding  pages. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  no  less  than  twenty-seven 
morbid  conditions  have  been  enumerated  as  arising  from 
the  inside  portion  of  the  foot  being  too  high ;  while  but 
eight  could  be  placed  to  the  account  of  the  outside  of 
the  foot  being  too  high.  Now,  the  reasons  for  this  have 
already  been  given,  but  they  will  bear  a  brief  repetition, 
namely,  that  with  troubles  on  the  outside  of  the  foot 
the  animal  is  not  obstructed  in  the  act  of  pointing  or 
resting  his  foot;  while  the  inside  of  the  foot  being  the 
source  of  his  uneasiness,  he  encounters  an  insuperable 
obstacle  to  his  purpose  of  pointing.  This  brings  me  to 
the  effects  of  the  spavined  condition  upon  action. 

Compression  of  Bones. 

173.  A  horse  with  an  inside  spavin  not  only  points 
inwardly  while  standing,  but  carries  his  leg  inwardly 
while  in  action ;  and  if  at  speed  he  carries  the  spavined 


THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  99 

leg  between  the  fore  ones.  It  is  easy  to  understand 
that  this  is  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  compression  of 
the  bones  and  its  accompanying  pain.  It  must  be  diffi- 
cult for  some  horses  to  keep  their  hind  legs  clear  of 
their  fore  ones  while  in  action.  It  may  be  stated,  as  an 
invariable  rule,  that  an  animal's  right  or  wrong  way  of 
standing  is  carried  out  in  action,  whether  it  be  slow  or 
fast.  Further  corroboration  of  the  truth  of  the  theory 
that  compression  of  bones  is  the  cause  of  spavin  may 
be  found  in  the  following  considerations. 

All  writers  on  spavin  refer  to  the  peculiar  way  some 
spavined  horses  have  of  walking  more  or  less  on  their 
toes.  The  bare  fact  is  usually  given  without  note  or 
comment  as  to  its  cause.  In  the  light  of  my  theory,  it 
is  easy  to  conceive  that  the  painful  effects  of  compres- 
sion are  lessened  by  that  action,  from  the  well-known 
fact  that  the  straighter  the  hock  and  limb  can  be  kept 
the  less  compression  is  caused  in  the  front  part  of  the 
hock.  The  bow  to  which  I  have  compared  the  leg  be- 
comes relaxed  by  straightening  out.  In  proportion  to 
the  animal's  ability  to  relax  this  bow,  thereby  transfer- 
ring some  of  the  weight  to  the  back  part  of  the  leg,  he 
will  find  relief  from  pain. 

Symptoms. 

174.  An  observer  may  notice  a  horse  with  spavin 
extend  his  spavined  leg  forward  as  far  as  he  can,  with 
the  view  of  straightening  his  leg.  It  is  obvious  that 
that  position  gives  him  the  most  ease.  Another  method 
of  obtaining  ease  is  by  placing  the  pained  leg  over 
against  the  sound  foot,  just  allowing  the  toe  to  touch  the 
ground.  This  relieves  compression,  by  throwing  the 
pastern  into  an  oblique  position  ;  and  as  the  pastern  and 
hock  joint  have  a  reciprocal  relation  to  each  other,  as 
the  pastern  becomes  more  the  hock  becomes  less  oblique, 
therefore  compression  is  relieved  by  this  position.      Look 


IOO  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

at  the  dread  a  horse  with  spavin  has  of  lying  down  or 
of  rising  when  down.  A  horse  cannot  lie  down  without 
doubling  his  leg  at  the  hock,  and  this  causes  increased 
compression  at  that  part ;  and  if  the  horse  is  spavined, 
the  pain  attending  extreme  compression  must  be  very 
great.  The  limb  may  be  compared  to  a  pair  of  nut- 
crackers, which  causes  more  compression  the  closer  'tis 
bent.  When  the  animal  rises  the  limb  must  be  doubled 
up  again,  like  the  closed  nut-crackers,  and  of  course  that 
is  the  moment  of  extreme  pain  which  the  animal  dreads 
to  encounter.  He  will  be  seen  to  straighten  out  his  leg 
all  he  can,  and  scramble  to  his  feet  the  best  way  he  can. 

I  cannot  help  referring  to  the  old-time  notion  that 
firing  and  blistering  would  strengthen  the  hock  and 
prevent  the  formation  of  a  spavin.  How  much  more 
rational  to  keep  the  foot  balanced ! 

To  remove  the  lameness  caused  by  pain  is  easier 
than  to  remove  the  spavin.  If  the  spavin  is  in  the  in- 
cipient stage — that  is,  in  its  earliest  manifestations — cor- 
rect shoeing  will  cause  its  dispersion ;  but  for  the  fully 
developed  spavin,  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  remove  the 
lameness  and  let  the  spavin  alone.  It  can  only  be  an 
eyesore  while  the  animal  is  able  to  move  freely  without 
pain. 

Treatment. 

175.  As  regards  the  treatment  of  spavin,  my  practice 
is  first  to  ascertain  and  compare  the  relative  widths  of 
the  inside  and  the  outside  of  the  foot,  so  as  to  be  sure 
that  the  weight  and  pressure  shall  be  transferred  from 
the  inside  to  the  outside  portion  of  the  foot  when  the 
shoe  comes  to  be  attached.  This  can  be  effected  by 
cutting  down  the  inside  bearing  surface  all  the  way 
from  the  toe  to  the  heel ;  and  be  sure  to  have  the  inside 
bearing  surface  a  little  lower  than  the  outside  while 
lameness  lasts.      Remember  to  lower,  shorten,  and  round 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  IOI 

offihz  inside  toe  all  it  will  bear;  and  leave  the  outside 
heel  a  little  the  highest.  This  is  all  that  can  be  done 
without  shoeing. 

There  are  some  conditions  of  feet  associated  with 
spavin  which  I  have  not  mentioned.  The  wall  on  the 
inside  grows  down  straighter,  and  this  causes  an  undue 
elevation  of  the  inside  half  of  the  pedal  bone  in  the  same 
degree,  while  the  outside  wall  grows  more  obliquely ;  it 
may  be  inside  or  outside  of  a  vertical  line  of  the  wall 
at  and  near  the  heel.  This  latter  contingency  is  a  loss 
of  support  to  the  pedal  bone,  causing  an  unbalanced 
condition  of  the  foot. 

Shoeing  for  Spavin. 

176.  The  shoe  that  will  compensate  for  these  defects 
I  have  named  the  shoe- fly  (see  Cut  35).  This  shoe  is  a 
modification  of  the  centre-bearing  shoe.  It  is  a  four- 
calk  shoe,  the  calks  at  the  heels  being  set  sideways,  with 
the  outside  heel  a  little  higher  than  the  inside,  which 
will  give  a  tilt  in  the  direction  of  the  inside  toe.  The 
shoe  at  the  inside  toe  should  be  hammered  down  thin 
and  the  web  rounded  up,  and  the  two  calks  should  be 
small  and  so  placed  that  the  toe  shall  have  no  bearing 
at  that  point — the  inside  toe — when  it  leaves  the  ground. 
Plainly  this  shoe  will  cause  the  foot  to  roll  over  easily 
inwardly  without  pressure  upon  the  point  of  danger.  If 
this  process  is  performed  properly,  the  result  is  almost 
an  immediate  relief  from  pain  and  lameness  in  a  large 
majority  of  cases;  but  if  a  case  arises  in  which  it  is  not 
effective,  put  on  a  centre-bearing  shoe,  and  the  result 
will  surprise  you. 

Blood-Spavin  and  Thoroughpin. 

177.  These  morbid  manifestations  are  of  a  similar 
nature  to  so-called  windgalls ;  they  are  the  result  of  in- 
juries  to   the   synovial   sacs — or    little    bags — through 


102  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

which  the  tendons  have  to  glide  when  the  horse  moves. 
Their  existence,  like  the  spavin,  is  always  associated  with 
a  high  inside  toe.  Some  cases  of  this  nature  are  accom- 
panied by  a  bony  enlargement  directly  on  the  inside  of 
the  hock,  which  may  be  large  or  small  according  to  its 
development.  The  cause  being  the  same  as  that  of 
spavin,  the  remedial  measures  are  the  same — a  "shoe- 
fly"  or  a  centre-bearing  shoe  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  case. 

Occult  Lameness. 

178.  It  maybe  well  to  remark  that  lameness  is  some- 
times present  when  there  are  no  visible  or  tangible  evi- 
dences of  the  cause.  When  both  cause  and  location  are 
unknown  it  is  an  occult  lameness.  It  is  such  cases  as 
these  which  call  forth  such  a  variety  of  opinions  among 
veterinary  practitioners.  "  Who  shall  decide  when  doc- 
tors disagree?"  Lameness  may  also  result  from  the 
sprain  of  any  of  the  lesser  ligaments  of  the  joint ;  but 
whether  it  be  in  the  hard  or  soft  tissues,  deep-seated  or 
near  the  surface,  whatever  the  cause  maybe,  the  never- 
failing  resource,  when  properly  adjusted,  is  the  centre- 
bearing  shoe. 

Interesting  Experiment. 

179.  It  may  interest  some  of  my  readers,  who  may 
not  be  aware  of  the  fact,  to  know  that  a  man  can  exert 
more  force  against  any  fixed  object  by  pressing  against 
it  with  that  portion  of  the  hand  nearest  to  the  wrist, 
than  if  his  whole  hand  be  spread  and  pressed  against 
the  same  object.  I  know  of  no  reason  why  this  should 
not  apply  to  the  horse's  foot  and  leg.  By  removing  the 
area  of  bearing  from  the  circumference  to  the  centre  of 
the  foot  the  power  must  be  increased  thereby,  and  this 
result  is  attained  by  the  centre-bearing  shoe.     It  is  plain 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  IO3 

that  the  arm  of  a  man  can  resist  more  pressure  in  a 
straight  than  in  an  oblique  line;  and  I  believe  this 
equally  true  of  the  horse's  foot  and  leg.  The  highest 
part  of  the  centre-bearing  shoe  should  be  placed  exactly 
under  the  centre  of  the  foot,  where  the  foot,  and  leg  are 
equally  divided  by  a  straight  line  from  the  shoulder. 
When  the  foot  is  wider  on  one  side  than  the  other,  you  will 
have  to  study  the  line  of  bearing  regardless  of  the  shape 
of  the  foot,  and  place  the  centre  of  the  shoe  as  nearly 
under  the  axis  or  line  of  bearing  as  possible.  The 
utility  and  value  of  the  centre-bearing  shoe  cannot  be 
insisted  upon  too  strongly. 

Treatment  for  All  Bone  Diseases. 

180.  From  the  preceding  remarks  it  will  appear 
that  the  rationale  of  the  treatment  for  spavin  is  the 
proper  one  to  adopt  in  all  bony  formations  or  other  trou- 
bles on  the  outside  as  well  as  on  the  inside  of  the  leg 
or  hock,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  outside  toe  of 
the  shoe  has  to  be  lowered  and  the  inside  heel  to  be 
slightly  raised,  that  the  shoe  may  roll  outwardly  instead 
of  inwardly. 

Contracted  Tendons. 

181.  I  have  explained  why  a  horse  walks  on  his  toe 
or  toes,  and  that  it  is  to  avoid  pain ;  yet  while  pain  is 
avoided  in  this  way  the  back  tendons  are  overtaxed,  and 
they  often  become  contracted  and  shortened,  so  much 
so  that  the  heels  are  prevented  from  touching  the  ground 
while  the  animal  is  travelling.  I  have  observed  occa- 
sional instances  of  this  nature  when  the  tendons  re- 
mained of  their  natural  size,  and  I  have  concluded  that 
the  contraction  must  have  been  in  the  body  of  the  mus- 
cle instead  of  the  tendinous  portion  of  it.  This  condi- 
tion can  only  be  cured  or  palliated  by  raising  the  heels 


104  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

of  the  shoe  and  lowering  the  toe  of  both  the  foot  and 
the  shoe  until  the  heels  come  to  the  ground  and  carry 
their  due  share  of  the  weight. 


Coming  Events. 

182.  Horses  are  sometimes  seen  to  stand  upon  their 
toes  in  the  stable  and  go  sound  when  they  are  at  work. 
As  "coming  events  cast  their  shadows  before,"  this 
practice  should  be  regarded  as  the  first  premonitory 
symptom  of  dangers  aJicad  and  treated  the  same  as  for 
shortened  tendons  at  once.  The  only  sure  way  to  pre- 
vent contraction  of  the  back  tendons  is  not  to  overtax 
them. 

Egregious  Mistake. 

183.  It  is  an  egregious  mistake  to  suppose  that  ten- 
dons can  be  lengthened  by  raising  or  extending  the  toe. 
The  only  way  it  can  be  done  without  dividing  the  ten- 
don is  to  coax  it  down,  as  it  were,  by  lowering  the  toe 
all  it  will  bear  and  raising  the  heels  with  calks  suffi- 
ciently high  to  get  a  bearing  upon  them,  and  to  lower 
them  little  by  little  as  the  horse  improves.  Walking 
upon  the  toe  proves  that  the  pedal  articulation  is  not 
evenly  divided  before  and  behind.  Not  until  the  joint 
works  equally  both  ways  will  all  unnatural  strain  of  the 
back  tendons  be  prevented. 

Unwise  Practice. 

184.  I  cannot  forbear  to  notice  the  unwise  practice, 
whoever  may  be  responsible  for  it,  of  placing  a  toe  calk 
on  the  point  of  the  shoe  that  wears  the  most,  with  the 
view  of  making  the  shoe  last  a  little  longer.  It  will  be 
seen  upon  reflection  that  this  is  calculated  to  weaken  the 
horse's  capacity  for  work,  and  is  the  kind  of  economy 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HOUSE.  1 05 

that  saves  at  the  spigot  and  loses  at  the  bung-hole.  If 
circumstances  call  for  raising  the  toes,  the  heels  should 
rje  raised  correspondingly.  Low  heels  are  apt  to  cause 
the  toe  to  grind,  and  this  grinding  movement  will  be 
less  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  heels. 

Ringbone. 

Rationale  of  Causes. 

185.  The  rationale  of  the  causes  that  produce  the 
morbid  bony  formation  called  ringbone  is  the  next  sub- 
ject for  consideration.  Whoever  understands  the  causes 
of  spavin  will  readily  understand  also  that  ringbone  is 
essentially  the  same  disease,  differing  only  in  location. 
Like  the  spavin,  it  is  a  bony  excrescence  produced  by 
exactly  the  same  causes,  namely,  compression  of  the 
bones  as  its  immediate  cause,  and  by  a  misshapen  hoof 
and  an  unbalanced  pedal  bone  as  its  remote  causes. 
Both  hind  and  fore  feet  are  alike  subject  to  ringbone. 

Locations  of  Ringbone. 

186.  Ringbone  is  mostly  first  seen  upon  the  small 
pastern  bone,  and  may  appear  on  any  one  of  three  loca- 
tions (see  Chart  9) . 

1.  In  front  upon  the  middle  of  the  bone  (Fig.  4). 

2.  A  little  toward  the  inside  of  the  bone  (Fig.  3). 

3.  A  little  toward  the  outside  of  the  bone  (Fig.  5). 
When  it  occurs  on  the  middle  of  the  bone  it  is  in  a 

direct  line  with  the  toe-clip  of  the  shoe  (Fig.  4) ;  when 
on  the  inside  of  the  middle  it  is  in  a  line  with  the  inside 
toe-nail  (Fig.  3);  and  when  upon  the  outside  of  the 
middle  it  is  in  a  line  with  the  outside  toe-nail  (Fig.  5). 
When  the  ringbone  starts  on  the  inside,  a  line  drawn 
from  the  first  inside  toe-nail  of  the  shoe  (as  in  Fig.  3) 
to  the  seat  of   inside   spavin  would    cross  directly  over 


106  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

it.  When  the  ringbone  occurs  in  this  location,  the  foot 
is  invariably  of  the  same  abnormal  form  as  that  which 
produces  the  inside  spavin.  A  proof  that  the  primary 
cause  of  ringbone  is  the  parent  of  spavin  lies  in  the  fact 
that  if  we  treat  the  foot  for  ringbone  in  precisely  the 
same  way  that  we  treat  it  for  spavin,  the  lameness  and. 
pain  will  disappear  at  once  if  it  be  in  the  early  stages. 
Another  proof  is  that  when  the  ringbone  appears  on  the 
outside  in  a  line  with  the  outside  toe  and  the  outside  spavin, 
the  lameness  will  also  disappear  under  the  treatment, 
prescribed  for  outside  spavin.  Ringbone  growing  upon 
the  middle  of  the  lower  pastern  in  a  line  with  the  toe- 
clip  of  the  shoe  is  always  caused  by  undue  length  or 
height  of  the  toe,  or  by  both  combined. 

High  Ringbone. 

1 87.  Another  form  of  ringbone,  called  high  ringbone,, 
appears  similarly  upon  the  upper  and  inner  portion  of 
the  large  pastern  bone,  and  in  the  same  relative  local- 
ities as  on  the  lower  pastern.  Their  centres  of  morbid, 
activity  lie  in  precisely  the  same  lines  as  those  on  the 
lower  pastern. 

There  can  be  no  other  conclusion  arrived  at  than 
that  all  these  bone  diseases,  the  results  of  inflammatory 
action  in  the  bones,  though  called  by  various  names, 
proceed  from  one  primary  cause,  namely,  a  deviation  of 
the  pedal  bone  from  its  natural  position  by  irregular 
growth  of  the  hoof.  The  vicinity  of  the  joints  appears 
to  be  affected  most  by  compression  and  concussion,  as  it 
is  there  these  excrescences  mostly  appear.  It  is  equally 
true  of  ringbone  as  of  other  diseases,  that  want  of  know- 
ing how  to  pare  the  hoof  and  adjust  the  shoe  will  but 
add  fuel  to  the  fire  and  intensify  the  other  causes. 

The  feet  of  a  ringboned  horse  will  always  be  found  to> 
have  the  wall  projecting  more  or  less  beyond  the  sole. 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  107 

Ringbone  never  appears  when  the  foot  is  perfect  in 
form  and  balance.  I  feel  justified  in  saying  that  if  our 
views  and  recommendations  for  the  care  of  horses'  feet, 
from  colthood  to  maturity,  should  be  generally  accepted 
and  carried  out  in  practice,  ringbones  and.  spavins  would 
soon  cease  to  be  seen  anywhere  except  as  specimens  in 
pathological  museums. 

A  Remarkable  Fact. 

188.  I  deem  it  worthy  of  mention  in  this  connection 
that  there  is  not  on  Mr.  Robert  Bonner's  farm  a  single 
case  of  ringbone  or  spavin,  and  the  sufficient  reason  for 
the  fact  is  that  all  his  stock  is  under  his  own  supervi- 
sion. The  colts'  feet  are  pared  monthly  and  the  horses' 
still  oftener.  I  consider  this  might  be  a  pretty  fair  cor- 
roborative proof  of  the  value  as  well  as  of  the  correctness 
of  my  theory. 

A  Serious  Mistake. 

189.  Ringbone  can  be  produced  by  keeping  horses 
or  spring  colts  during  the  winter  on  extra  thick  and  soft 
bedding.  It  is  customary  with  farmers  who  raise  large 
quantities  of  grain  to  spread  the  straw  after  thrashing 
in  a  barn-yard  sometimes  from  five  to  ten  feet  deep  or 
more  and  then  turn  the  horses  and  colts  onto  it,  think- 
ing the  animals  will  be  in  comfortable  quarters.  This 
is  a  very  serious  error,  for  the  animals  could  not  be  sit- 
uated more  favorably  for  the  production  of  foot  and  leg 
diseases,  as  the  heels  sink  in  and  the  toes  turn  up  all  the 
time.  Thick  and  deep  bedding  is  only  fit  for  horses  to 
lie  upon,  not  to  walk  or  stand  upon. 

Even  cobble-stones  would  be  better  for  a  horse  to 
stand  upon  than  soft  bedding.  They  are  even  better 
for  lame  horses  to  stand  upon  than  soft  ground,  for  the 
reason  that  they  can  balance  their  feet  better  on  their 


108  THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

rounded  surfaces  than  on  any  any  other  ground,  whether 
they  be  shod  or  barefooted.  One  will  often  see  a  horse 
pawing  and  feeling  with  his  feet  to  find  an  easier  position ; 
and  they  will  sometimes  dig  holes  in  the  ground,  in 
order  to  stand  with  the  toe  down  and  the  heels  up, 
which  they  will  do  if  you  supply  them  with  cobble-stones. 

Forty-five  Years'  Experience 

190.  Has  taught  me  that  an  irregular  and  unbal- 
anced foot  is  the  first  cause  of  ringbone.  It  has  also 
taught  me  that  a  centre-bearing  shoe,  when  applied  at 
the  commencement  of  the  lameness,  will  cause  its  coun- 
teraction and  dispersion.  In  ordinary  cases  it  will  in  a 
large  majority  of  instances  relieve  the  lameness,  but 
will  not  scatter  the  excrescences.  Such  is  the  marvellous 
effect  of  the  centre-bearing  shoe  that  I  hope  to  be  ex- 
cused for  referring  to  it  so  often,  as  it  is  usually  to  pre- 
sent some  new  view  of  its  action  or  properties  which  I 
have  not  before  presented.  When  a  horse  is  made  to 
travel  on  a  spherically  shaped  shoe,  lame  or  sound,  a  less 
degree  of  rotation  in  the  joints  of  the  leg  is  necessary 
by  the  rounded  surface  of  the  shoe ;  and  the  less  strain 
there  is  upon  the  joints  and  their  ligamentous  connec- 
tions the  more  reserved  power  there  will  be  in  the  horse 
for  contingencies  calling  for  speed  and  endurance,  be- 
sides the  immediate  relief  it  gives  from  pain  and  lame- 
ness. 

Firing  and  Blistering. 

191.  Nearly  all  writers  on  ringbone  recommend  firing 
and  blistering  and  a  run  at  grass.  What  is  the  ration- 
ale of  firing  and  blistering?  It  is  to  set  up  rapid  inflatm 
matory  action  in  the  bones  around  the  joint,  so  as  to 
destroy  the  mobility  of  the  joint,  as  it  is  this  mobility 
which  produces  the  pain  and  lameness.     Speed  horses 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  109 

can  never  go  so  fast  after  the  mobility  of  the  joint  has 
been  destroyed  as  they  could  before;  therefore  whatever 
benefit  is  derived  from  it  is  limited  to  slow-goers  and 
draught  horses.  In  a  large  proportion  of  horses  fired 
and  blistered  for  ringbone,  failure  and  disappointment 
are  the  usual  results,  for  the  destruction  of  one  joint 
only  increases  the  work  of  the  others. 


Double  Motion. 

192.  A  centre-bearing  shoe  can  be  applied  for  all 
ringbones,  whether  they  be  high  or  low,  and  even 
when  they  are  so  low  that  they  involve  the  pedal  artic- 
ulation. When  the  latter  is  the  case,  the  condition 
termed  club-foot  is  produced.  Such  a  foot  in  travelling 
reaches  the  ground  with  the  heels  first  and  leaves  the 
ground  last,  with  the  toe  making  a  double  motion.  The 
lower  the  ringbone  is  situated,  the  greater  will  be  the 
lameness  and  the  more  of  a  club-foot  action  it  will  have 
in  walking,  and  in  the  same  proportion  will  the  shoe  be 
required  to  rock,  so  as  to  prevent  the  striking  of  the 
ground  first  with  the  heel  and  lastly  with  the  toe. 


A  Disadvantage. 

.93.  The  centre-bearing  shoe  has  one  disadvantage,, 
and  that  is  in  being  slippery  on  wet  ground.  As  to  the 
principle  of  the  shoe  when  modified  to  suit  the  various 
purposes  for  which  horses  are  used,  I  feel  assured  that 
horses  will  work  better  and  speed  faster  than  when  shod 
with  common  shoes.  The  more  perfect  the  foot  and 
the  sounder  the  horse,  the  less  elevation  of  the  ground 
surface  of  the  shoe  is  required ;  but  I  am  convinced  that 
a  slightly  rounded  surface  will  facilitate  speed  whenever 
or  wherever  that  quality  is  desired. 


HO  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

Ringbone  More  Injurious  than  Spavin, 

194.  For  the  reason  that  the  main  articulations  of  the 
joints  are  more  or  less  involved  than  in  spavin ;  in  the 
latter  the  interference  is  mainly  with  the  small  bones, 
but  not  with  the  principal  articulation.  A  ringbone 
upon  the  hind  pastern  will  sometimes  force  a  horse  to 
walk  upon  his  toe,  the  same  as  would  a  spavin,  and  for 
the  reason,  namely,  to  avoid  compression  of  the  bones 
in  front  of  the  pastern  joint.  This  compression,  I  re- 
peat, is  felt  the  most  when  the  last  effort  is  made  by 
the  toe  as  it  leaves  the  ground,  as  it  is  there  the  pastern 
turns  or  rocks  over  and  the  pain  is  felt.  To  avoid  this 
he  not  only  walks  on  his  toe,  but  will  not  allow  his  foot 
to  stretch  backward  beyond  the  vertical  line  of  the  artic- 
ulation. The  degree  of  lameness  will  always  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  compression  at  each  finishing 
of  the  step. 

Heredity. 

195.  As  to  the  heredity  of  ringbone,  the  great  Cana- 
dian horse  St.  Lawrence  was  entirely  free  from  this  dis- 
ease, yet  I  knew  of  a  son  of  that  horse  developing  a 
ringbone  after  he  was  twenty  years  old.  I  could  not 
■deem  this  case  one  of  heredity ;  and  if  a  law  were  to  be 
passed  prohibiting  breeding  from  ringbone  sires  and 
dams,  I  certainly  would  have  those  animals  exempted 
from  the  operation  of  that  law  who  developed  no  ring- 
bones until  after  they  were  ten  years  old.  In  the  case 
of  ringbone  just  referred  to,  if  it  were  hereditary  I 
cannot  understand  why  one  hind  foot  should  inherit  this 
disease,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  the  others,  and  why  it 
did  not  appear  at  an  earlier  age.  I  can  comprehend, 
however,  how  easy  it  is  for  feet  to  get  out  of  shape  when 
there  are  no  bed-rock  principles  to  go  by  in  paring  and 
.shoeing  a  horse's  foot.     It  is  chance-work,  depending 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  Ill 

entirely  on  the  individual  experience  and  judgment  of 
the  shoers,  among  whom  there  are  widely  differing  de- 
grees of  capacity  and  intelligence.  To  some,  cutting 
down  the  foot  involves  too  much  labor;  in  such  cases 
hereditary  ^disposition,  I  think,  would  be  as  good  a 
theory  as  to  the  origin  of  ringbone  as  hereditary  pre- 
disposition. 

The  Remedy— "  Ay,  that's  the  Thing." 

196.  The  centre-bearing  shoe  applied  as  directed  for 
•spavin  gives  relief  from  pain  and  lameness  in  very  bad 
cases,  but  its  effects  are  most  striking  in  the  earlier 
stages,  when  the  pain  and  lameness  disappear  absolutely 
in  a  few  days.  Why?  Because  the  bearing  of  the  shoe 
is  transferred  from  the  circumference  to  the  centre  of 
the  foot,  rotation  of  the  joint  being  substituted  by  an 
external  mechanical  rotation  that  relieves  the  strain  of 
the  sensitive  parts  and  multiplies  the  power. 

Percival  and  Ringbone. 

197.  If  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  the  one-bone 
theory  had  been  known  and  a  rational  system  of  shoe- 
ing had  been  built  upon  it  and  universally  taught  and 
practised,  I  feel  sure  that  Mr.  Percival  about  half  a  cen- 
tury ago  would  not  have  been  able  to  collect  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  specimens  of  completely  anchylosed  joints 
due  to  the  disease  called  ringbone,  nor  would  all  of  his 
successors  together  up  to  the  present  time.  That  gen- 
tleman could  see  no  deeper  into  the  matter  than  to 
ascribe  a  short  pastern  and  concussion  as  the  origin  of 
ringbone ! 

The  Rocker  Shoe. 

198.  The  rocker  shoe  is  made  by  welding  a  piece  of 
iron  on  each  side  of  the  shoe  from  two  to  two  and  one- 
half  inches  long — according  to  the  size  of  the  shoe — and 


112  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

half  an  inch  high  as  shown  in  Cut  2 1 .  The  front  and 
back  parts  are  rounded  down  to  suit  the  requirements 
of  the  case ;  that  is  to  say,  if  the  horse  has  a  tendency  to 
walk  on  his  toes,  make  the  highest  part  of  the  rocker 
toward  the  heels;  and  if  he  treads  too  much  upon  the 
heels,  have  the  highest  part  of  the  rocker  toward  the  toe. 
The  required  modifications  should  be  made  by  degrees,, 
guarding  against  radical  changes  or  sudden  transitions- 


Ossification  of  Articular  Cartilage. 

Dangerous  Form  of  Ringbone. 

199.  I  wish  to  call  the  attention  of  veterinary  pathol- 
ogists to  a  disease  of  the  pastern  joint  which,  as  far  as  I 
know,  has  received  no  special  consideration  as  a  distinct 
variety  of  ringbone.  It  proceeds  from  the  same  pri- 
mary causes  as  ringbone,  but  its  location  is  more  peril- 
ous to  the  pastern  joint  than  the  forms  of  ringbone 
which  have  been  described,  inasmuch  as  it  is  more  a 
disease  of  the  articulation  than  of  the  bone.  It  starts  in 
the  articulation  and  extends  to  the  bone,  while  other 
forms  of  ringbone  commence  in  the  bone  and  extend 
.to  the  joint.  This  makes  it  so  dangerous  and  so  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  cure.  You  may  obliterate  the  small 
pastern  joint  by  firing  and  blistering  if  you  will,  but  no 
such  liberty  may  be  taken  with  the  large  pastern  joint. 

While  the  large  pastern  joint  remains  sound,  it  will 
compensate  for  the  loss  of  motion  in  the  small  pastern 
joint;  but  there  is  no  compensation  for  injuries  to  the 
large  pastern  or  fetlock  joint.  When  that  articulation 
becomes  seriously  affected,  it  is  incurable.  I  know  of 
scores  of  such  horses  around  New  York  City  to-day 
which  but  for  this  one  articular  and  /articular  malady 
would  be  worth  many  thousands  of  dollars  in  the  ag- 
gregate. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  II3 


Peculiarities  of  Large  Pastern  Joint. 

200.  There  are  peculiarities  in  the  construction  of 
this  joint  which  I  must  advert  to  in  order  to  make  my 
observations  on  this  malady  intelligible.  No  joint  of 
the  hinge  variety  possesses  so  large  an  articulating  sur- 
face as  this  joint  in  the  entire  system  of  the  horse  for 
its  size  or  admits  of  such  a  wide  sweep  of  rotation. 
Fully  two-thirds  of  the  circumference  of  the  bones  form- 
ing the  joint  is  covered  by  articular  cartilage,  and  this 
indicates  the  wide  degree  of  rotation  that  it  enjoys.  A 
deep  groove  in  the  centre  of  one  bone  and  a  high  ridge 
upon  the  centre  of  the  other  indicates  that  not  the 
smallest  degree  of  lateral  motion  was  intended  for  this 
joint.  Below  the  knee  there  is  no  provision  for  lateral 
motion  in  any  of  the  joints. 

Ball-and-Socket  Joint. 

201.  The  three  joints  below  the  knee  admit  of  mo- 
tion only  in  direct  lines.  Every  provision  possible  has 
been  made  to  brace  and  strengthen  the  pastern  and  the 
pedal  joints  to  prevent  any  sideway  motion  and  pre- 
serve them  in  their  true  lines  of  bearing  for  carrying 
weight.  It  is  easy  to  see  what  the  effect  would  be  if 
there  was  any  sideway  movements  of  the  joint.  The 
legs  would  get  mixed  up  and  bewilder  the  animal  by 
constantly  thinking  how  to  keep  his.  legs  clear  of  each, 
other  in  rapid  motion,  particularly  when  changing  his. 
movements.  Evidently  his  fore  legs  below  the  knee  are 
designed  to  rise  and  fall  only  in  the  direct  lines  of 
flexion  and  extension,  like  a  common  hinge.  His  hind 
limbs  have  ball-and-socket  joint  called  whirl  bone,  to 
enable  him  to  plant  his  hind  feet  to  greater  advantage 
and  to  keep  them  clear  of  the  fore  feet. 

The  remarkable  ligament  called  the  suspensory  will 


114  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

be  fully  described  elsewhere ;  therefore  I  shall  only  call 
your  attention  to  its  hammock-like  form  and  capacity 
for  resisting  the  forces  of  weight  and  momentum  when 
both  are  imposed  upon  the  pastern  joint. 

Anatomy  of  the  Joint. 

202.  We  will  now  glance  at  the  nature  of  the  mate- 
rials which  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  joint  other 
than  bone.  The  ends  of  each  bone  are  tipped  with  two 
layers  of  cartilage,  one  comparatively  soft  and  elastic, 
which  are  the  buffers  of  the  joint,  the  other  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  some  very  hard,  smooth  material,  to  enable  the 
toones  to  glide  smoothly  on  each  other.  These  gliding 
surfaces  are  oiled  as  it  were  by  a  fluid  called  synovia,  of 
tcourse  to  prevent  friction.  While  this  living  hinge 
hangs  all  right  and  is  kept  oiled,  there  is  no  danger  to 
the  joint.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  foot  changes  its 
line  of  bearing,  whether  to  the  left  or  to  the  right, 
whatever  might  be  the  cause,  this  living  hinge  ceases  to 
rotate  with  precision  around  its  central  axis;  the  bearing 
becomes  unequally  distributed ;  a  wabbling  motion  is  set 
up;  friction  ensues;  and  very  soon,  if  the  cause  is  not 
removed,  the  thin  cartilage  is  fretted  through  and  the 
soft  elastic  buffers  are  ploughed  into;  disorganization 
ensues;  all  the  tissues  composing  the  joint  become  in- 
volved in  inflammatory  action;  and  the  products  of  in- 
flammation first  appear  under  the  skin  upon  the  edges  of 
the  joint.  At  this  stage,  if  the  cause  can  be  recognized 
and  the  foot  balanced,  the  self-healing  power  of  nature 
will  restore  the  parts  to  normal  conditions.  It  is,  how- 
ever, very  apt  to  receive  but  little  notice.  When  the 
•cause  continues  in  operation,  the  product  of  inflamma- 
tion becomes  gristly  in  its  nature  and  eventually  changes 
into  bone.  When  this  happens  the  mobility  of  the  pas- 
tern joint  is  more  or  less  destroyed,  generally  more,  and 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  115 

the  animal  is  valueless  for  any  but  the  slowest  work.  A 
centre-bearing  shoe  is  a  helper  in  such  circumstances, 
but  the  disease  is  irremediable.  The  cartilaginous  de- 
posits having  become  converted  into  bone,  I  think  I  may 
with  propriety  name  this  disease  ossification  of  the  articu- 
lar cartilages  of  the  large  pastern  joint. 

Treatment. 

203.  The  treatment  in  the  early  or  any  stage  should 
be  precisely  the  same  as  for  spavin  or  ringbone.  Some- 
times the  centre  of  activity  is  on  the  outside  and  some- 
times upon  the  inside ;  but  most  frequently  on  the  latter. 
Of  course  the  paring  of  the  foot  and  the  modification  of 
the  shoe  must  be  in  accordance  with  the  respective  loca- 
tions of  the  disease. 

Splent. 

Causes   of  Splent. 

204.  Splent  is  the  name  of  another  bony  deposit,  the 
most  frequent  cause  of  which  is  undue  height  and  width 
of  the  inside  of  the  foot.  It  is  often  found  to  be  exceed- 
ingly painful,  the  animal  catching  up  his  leg  very  quickly 
when  the  part  affected  is  pressed  upon.  It  is  most  fre- 
quently found  on  the  upper  and  inside  portion  of  the 
large  metacarpal  or  cannon  bone,  its  common  name. 
Splent  generally  appears  on  the  inside  of  the  leg  and 
but  very  rarely  on  the  outside.  All  bony  enlargements 
of  the  cannon  bones  are  called  splent.  A  bony  deposit 
on  the  lower  portion  of  the  cannon  bone  is  often  caused 
by  a  blow  from  the  opposite  foot,  so  severe  sometimes 
as  to  produce  lameness.  Cooling  lotions  and  a  boot  are 
usually  sufficient  for  such  cases.  The  splent,  however, 
just  under  the  knee  joint  is  of  a  more  serious  nature, 
and  still  more  so  if  the  horse  is  used  for  fast  work.  The 
lameness  increases  and  diminishes  in  the  ratio  of  the 
speed. 


Il6  THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 


Causes  and  Effects. 


205 .  What  makes  the  effects  of  splent  so  situated  so 
painful  and  hard  to  cure  is  that  the  material  which 
unites  the  small  splent  bones  to  the  cannon  bone  be- 
comes elongated  and  strained  at  their  superior  portions 
by  the  extra  weight  they  are  forced  to  carry,  while  the 
inside  portion  of  the  foot  is  higher  than  the  outside. 

It  can  be  produced  in  a  perfect  foot  in  turning  while 
going  fast,  by  forcing  too  much  weight  upon  the  inside 
of  the  foot  and  knee  when  so  turning.  It  can  also  be 
produced  by  stepping  upon  a  stone  or  some  inequality 
of  surface  while  going  fast,  or  by  the  foot  being  turned 
up  inwardly.  It  never  occurs  when  the  animal  is  walk- 
ing or  at  slow  work.     It  is  the  price  paid  for  speed. 

Firing  and  blistering  in  such  case  should  be  the  last 
resource,  and  never  resorted  to  until  all  others  have 
been  tried  and  found  to  fail. 

Sudden  Unequal  Pressure. 

206.  It  is  not,  properly  speaking,  a  disease  of  the 
joint,  although  the  small  splent  bones  have  a  small 
articulating  surface  on  the  upper  end.  As  said  before, 
the  trouble  is  in  the  very  short  ligaments  which  unite 
the  splent  bones  to  the  large  cannon  bone. 

The  force  of  the  weight  and  strain  from  sudden  un- 
equal pressure  upon  these  bones  not  only  presses  them 
downward,  but  has  a  tendency  to  force  them  apart.  If 
the  main  articulation  or  lesser  articulations  of  the  small 
bones  of  the  knee  are  involved,  it  is  but  remotely. 

Treatment. 

207.  In  some  cases  of  this  form  of  lameness,  simply 
lowering  the  inside  of  the  foot  has  removed  the  cause, 
and  the  lameness,  the  effect,  has  ceased.     I  have  known 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  117 

many  such  kept  at  fast  work  to  become  sound  and  re- 
main so  as  long  as  the  feet  were  kept  level  and  perfectly- 
balanced. 

The  shoe  best  adapted  for  such  cases  is  the  centre- 
bearing  shoe,  as  horses  with  these  shoes  on  are  not  sub- 
ject to  sprains  or  other  injuries  arising  from  treading  on 
unequal  surfaces,  as  is  the  case  with  any  other  form  of 
shoe. 

The  centre-bearing  shoe  is  more  than  an  equiva- 
lent for  a  level  and  smooth  pavement ;  it  gives  the  foot 
a  pivot  to  turn  upon,  which  the  pavement  does  not, 
however  level,  thereby  preventing  a  twist  of  the  pedal 
articulation ;  and  what  prevents  that  will  prevent  a  twist 
in  the  knee  joint. 

Enlargements  of  the  Heels. 

Abnormal  Enlargements. 

208.  These  are  abnormal  conditions,  which  are  inci- 
dental and  limited  to  the  backward  portions  of  the  foot, 
just  as  there  are  diseases  which  pertain  to  its  forward 
parts. 

These  enlargements  have  no  specific  designations, 
but  to  some  they  are  suggestive  of  bunions  or  fun- 
gous growths,  and  are  to  be  met  with  in  every  class  of 
horses. 

No  one  will  dispute  the  statement  that  these  en- 
largements are  abnormal.  In  the  same  region  we  may 
have  ossified  lateral  cartilages  and  a  fistulous  affection 
called  quittor. 

On  the  under  part  of  the  heels,  at  the  inflection  which 
marks  the  union  of  wall  and  bar,  a  red  stain  may  often 
be  seen  which  indicates  the  presence  of  a  morbid  condi- 
tion called  corn.  All  these  conditions  maybe  attributed 
to  the  same  general  cause,  namely,  undue  height  of  the 
heels.     These   abnormally   enlarged   heels   are   simply 


I  1 8  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

elongations  of  the  heels  as  seen  in  Cut  16.  The  heel 
which  receives  the  heaviest  thumps  while  travelling  be- 
comes larger  and  longer  than  its  fellow.  When  this 
happens  the  red  stain  indicative  of  corn  is  usually  ab- 
sent. At  a  slow  no  lameness  may  be  present,  but  at 
fast  work  lameness  is  very  apt  to  be  manifested. 

Symptoms. 

209.  The  symptoms  in  the  forward  feet  are  pointing- 
with  the  affected  foot  backward  and  inward  and  fulness 
of  the  lateral  cartilage  and  the  tissue  surrounding  it, 
supposing  the  trouble  to  be  on  the  inside  heel. 

The  swollen  tissues  sometimes  are  so  large  that  it  is 
difficult  and  dangerous  to  lower  them  sufficiently  to  get 
a  bearing  upon  the  opposite  side,  and  the  only  way  to 
avoid  pressure  and  concussion  is  to  raise  the  whole  outer 
part  of  the  hoof  sufficiently  high  for  that  purpose  by 
means  of  a  shoe. 

There  are  different  degrees  and  forms  of  enlarge- 
ment caused  by  deformities  of  the  hoof  in  this  region. 
Sometimes  the  persistent  pressure  of  a  deformed  hoof 
causes  atrophy,  or  a  wasting  away  of  the  soft  tissues, 
or,  aided  by  concussion,  the  effects  may  be  seen  in 
hypertrophy;  that  is,  an  unnatural  enlargement  of  the 
tissues.  These  abnormal  enlargements  are  very  com- 
mon in  our  practice,  and  I  feel  that  no  apology  is  neces- 
sary for  speaking  of  them  at  such  length.  They  are 
very  insidious  in  their  development,  and  they  too  fre- 
quently end  disastrously.  Horses  are  often  seen  liftings 
the  foot  and  bending  the  knee  without  any  other  visi- 
ble or  tangible  sign  of  trouble ;  and,  alas !  how  few  there 
are  who  can  intelligibly  interpret  that  simple  sign !  In 
pronounced  cases  the  knee  may  often  be  seen  half-bent 
in  the  endeavors  of  the  animal  to  gain  ease  from  the 
pain  produced  by  these  deformities. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  II9 

The  Remedy. 

210.  The  remedy  in  the  early  stages  is  to  lower  the 
hoof  of  the  afflicted  heel  and  throw  a  little  extra  share 
of  weight  upon  the  opposite  heel.  This  will  check  the 
growing  enlargement  and  tend  to  equalize  the  bearing. 
In  some  advanced  cases,  as  shown  in  preceding  remarks, 
a  bearing  on  both  sides  cannot  be  obtained  by  subtrac- 
tion of  hoof,  but  it  can  be  by  the  addition  of  iron. 

It  is  not  only  a  law,  but  a.  fact,  that  the  horn-secreting 
processes  of  the  wall,  the  sole,  and  the  frog  are  unduly 
stimulated  by  concussion  of  the  heel,  which  strikes  the 
ground  first,  and  that  this  cause  alone,  all  else  being 
equal,  will  produce  a  disproportion  of  size  between  the 
two  heels,  as  well  as  between  the  two  sides  of  the  foot. 

I  have  observed  in  some  cases  of  one  abnormally 
high  heel  that  the  diagonally  opposite  toe  has  been 
affected  by  atrophy  or  a  deficiency  at  that  point. 

Recognizing  this  as  a  law  and  a  fact,  it  should  be  easy 
to  apply  the  right  remedy : 

Equalize  the  bearing  of  both  heels  one  ivay  or  another 
as  pointed  out.  When  the  shoe  is  to  be  the  principal 
equalizer  of  the  bearing,  one  horn  of  the  shoe  should  be 
thin  and  the  other  thick,  the  requirement  being  to 
transfer  the  largest  share  of  the  bearing  from  the  un- 
soundto  the  sound  heel. 

An  elongated  heel  is  never  seen  in  a  sound  foot, 
therefore  it  must  be  a  deformity. 

The  sound  has  a  uniformity  of  contour  of  both  heels 
which  pleases  the  eye  and  satisfies  the  judgment. 

It  may  safely  be  predicted  of  a  deformed  heel  that 
lameness  will  be  the  result  sooner  or  later.  It  generally 
occurs  upon  the  inside  heel.  When  if.  occurs  on  the  out- 
side it  is  not  so  injurious,  for  the  reason  that  a  horse  can 
better  prevent  pain  of  the  outside  heel  by  pointing 
backward   and   outward ;  and  when   it  is  on   the  inside 


120  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

heel  he  cannot  point  in  the  direction  that  gives  him  the 
most  ease.  For  this  reason,  also,  the  inside  heel  is  the 
slowest  in  returning  to  normal  conditions. 

Corn. 

General  Observations. 

2ii.  In  my  last  article  I  made  mention  of  the  fact 
that  corn  is  one  of  the  morbid  conditions  incidental  to 
the  posterior  part  of  the  foot  of  the  horse.  At  first 
sight  it  might  seem  strange  that  one  cause  should  pro- 
duce such  widely  different  effects  such  as  we  see  in  fun- 
gous enlargements  on  the  one  hand  and  an  invisible 
condition  denoted  by  a  little  blood-stained  spot  upon  the 
other.  Horses  affected  but  slightly  by  corn  are  not 
usually  considered  practically  unsound. 

Corn  is  a  very  prevalent  disease  among  city  horses, 
and  on  account  of  its  extensive  prevalence  among  all 
classes  of  horses,  the  pecuniary  losses  arising  from  this 
one  form  of  diseased  foot  must  be  very  great  indeed. 

If  horses  are  not  /^disposed  to  this  malady  by  heredi- 
tary transmission,  they  are  all  equally  reposed  to  it. 

It  is  found  in  all  breeds  of  horses  and  textures  of 
feet,  from  the  thoroughbred  to  the  flat-footed  and  cold- 
blooded horse.  Although  this  is  the  case,  certain  forms 
of  feet,  all  else  being  equal,  are  the  most  disposed  to  this 
malady. 

Corn  and  its  Causes. 

212.  The  question  of  corn  and  its  causes  has  long 
been  considered  a  mystery.  I  confess  I  shall  be  some- 
what disappointed  if  I  do  not  succeed  in  removing  some 
portion  of  its  mysterious  character,  and  also  if  some 
who  have  been  mystified  over  the  matter  do  not  freely 
"  acknowledge  the  corny 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  12  1 

I  refer  you  to  Cut  2,  which  represents  a  foot  which 
has  a  strong  tendency  to  grow  at  the  heels,  a  form  of 
foot  which  is  prolific  in  the  production  of  a  certain  class 
of  diseases,  which  includes  corn.  In  our  observations 
on  enlargement  of  heels,  we  stated  that  in  common  with 
corn  it  proceeded  from  undue  height  of  one  or  both 
heels.  The  best  proof  that  high  heels  are  the  most  fre- 
quent cause  of  corn  is  that  by  simply  lowering  the  heels 
the  corn  will  gradually  disappear,  without  any  other 
treatment.  In  Cut  2  you  will  observe  that  extra  height 
of  hoof  at  the  heels  has  tipped  the  pedal  bone  down- 
ward and  forward,  differing  in  that  respect  from  Cut  1 , 
where  the  pedal  bone  is  kept  level  by  an  even  growth 
of  hoof.  In  Cut  2-  it  will  be  seen  how,  while  the  direc- 
tion of  the  outline  of  the  heel  takes  an  almost  vertical 
angle,  that  of  the  wall  approaches  the  horizontal  toward 
the  toe,  and  that  the  pedal  bone  under  these  conditions 
must  necessarily  become  higher  behind  than  it  is  in 
front.  It  cannot  avoid  tipping  forward  and  downward  at 
the  toe,  and  the  effect  of  this  displaced  bone  makes  the 
horse  point  backward  for  relief. 

Symptoms. 

213.  We  may  ascertain  the  presence  of  corn  by  care- 
fully pressing  the  heels  and  other  parts  of  the  foot  with 
pinchers,  and  by  comparing  the  resistance  offered  at  dif- 
ferent points  of  the  foot.  As  corn  is  commonly  found  in 
feet  resembling  Cut  2,  it  must  be  associated  with  mala- 
dies which  are  produced  by  a  foot  of  that  form.  These 
maladies  have  been  enumerated  and  need  not  be  re- 
peated. It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  curing  any 
one  of  the  ailments  produced  by  high  heels  when  our 
treatment  is  applied,  corn  is  a  frequent  accompaniment, 
but  is  always  the  first  to  yield  and  disappear,  just  as  if 
it  had  been  a  mere  symptom  of  the  other  trouble ;  yet 


122  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

as  an  independent  malady  it  is  or  has  been  one  of  the 
most  formidable  agencies  of  destruction  to  the  equine 
race.  Corn  is  sometimes  present  in  both  heels;  in  such 
cases,  the  general  treatment  for  too  high  heels  usually 
suffices.  If  present  but  in  one  heel,  the  treatment  pre- 
scribed for  one  side  is  applicable. 

Mr.  Robert  Bonner  and  High  Heels. 

214.  That  gentleman  when  he  finds  a  horse  not  ex- 
tending himself  in  his  usual  ways  suspects  that  the 
heels  are  getting  too  high,  thereby  unbalancing  the  foot 
and  throwing  too  much  weight  behind,  which  creates 
the  tendency  to  corn.  He  lowers  the  heels  at  once  in 
such  cases ;  and  the  freedom  with  which  a  horse  extends 
himself  afterward  proves  the  correctness  of  his  judg- 
ment. I  do  not  think  it  possible  for  a  horse  to  speed 
his  best  with  an  unbalanced  foot  and  high  heels.  Horses 
kept  for  speed,  in  my  opinion,  whether  affected  by  corn 
or  otherwise,  should  have  their  heels  kept  down  so  as 
to  maintain  a  perfect  balance  of  tne  foot. 

Corn  and  Contraction. 

215.  We  very  seldom  find  corn  in  feet  affected  by 
navicular  disease.  The  latter  comes  from  extra  height 
of  toe,  while  corn  is  the  product  of  high  heels.  If  corn 
is  found  in  company  with  navicular  disease,  it  will 
surely  be  found  on  the  side  of  the  foot  which  carries  the 
most  weight. 

A  corn  could  not  possibly  be  produced  any  other  way, 
except  by  simple  contraction.  In  this  case  the  contrac- 
tion is  associated  with  high  toe  and  inside  foot. 

We  have  stated  before  and  repeat  that  all  forms  of 
feet,  even  the  soundest,  are  liable  to  become  the  sub- 
jects of  corn.     To  prove  this  I  refer  you  to  Cut  1,  repre- 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  123 

senting  a  sound  and  perfectly  formed  foot,  where  in 
every  part  of  the  wall  the  horn  fibres  grow  parallel  with 
each  other,  from  the  coronet  downward,  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees. 

Now  refer  to  Cut  2  and  notice  the  difference  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibres.  The  horn  fibres  grow  down  at 
different  angles  behind  and  in  front  of  the  hoof.  There 
is  so  much  divergence  that  the  wall  of  the  foot  in  front 
presents  such  a  concave  surface  that  the  balance  of  the 
foot  is  destroyed,  the  pedal  bone  displaced,  and  the 
leverage  produced  by  the  extra  height  and  length  of 
the  toe  becomes  an  opposing  force  to  the  animal's  pro- 
gression. 

Natural  Size  and  the  White  Line. 

216.  Corn,  as  I  have  stated,  can  be  produced  in  a 
perfectly  formed  foot  if  the  hoof  is  allowed  to  grow 
beyond  its  natural  size.  That  natural  size  is  no  longer 
a  matter  of  fancy  or  doubt,  but  a  well-proved  question 
of  fact.  It  is  infallibly  indicated  by  a  zone  of  whitish 
horn  that  marks  the  union  of  the  sole  and  wall  (see 
Cut  1,  letters.//",/). 

Above  this  line  is  shown  a  foot  of  proper  height  and 
length,  and  where  the  first  three  bones  of  the  foot  and 
leg  are  in  their  true  line  of  bearing  with  each  other, 
this  latter  being  shown  half-way  between  the  heel  and 
toe  of  the  pedal  bone  at  the  line  e.  It  will  be  seen 
that  if  the  wall  of  the  foot  is  allowed  to  grow  long 
enough  to  reach  the  line  h  h,  the  heels  will  be  forced 
to  carry  a  much  greater  weight  than  their  share.  From 
these  considerations  it  must  be  clear  that  the  best-formed 
foot  which  ever  existed,  all  else  being  equal,  can  be  thrown 
out  of  balance,  and  the  hinder  portion  of  the  foot  made 
to  carry  more  weight  than  its  share,  and  the  forward 
part  of  the  foot  exposed  to  an  adverse  leverage,  and 
the   living   tissues   made  the  subject    of    inflammatory 


FI24  THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

action ;  all  by  the  mere  overgrowth  of  hoof  in  length 
and  depth.  This  is  not  a  matter  of  opinion  or  mere 
speculation ;  it  is  a  question  of  fact  and  demonstration, 
as  easily  susceptible  of  proof  as  the  first  problem  in 
Euclid.  In  order  to  make  my  theory  incontrovertible  and 
unanswerable,  I  refer  you  to  another  form  of  foot  which  is 
represented  in  Cut  6,  where  the  front  wall  of  the  foot 
presents  a  convex  surface  from  the  horn  fibres  taking  a 
circular  direction  outward  and  downward,  and  the  fibres 
of  the  heels  growing  downward  and  forward,  becoming 
at  the  heels  almost  horizontal.  The  probable  cause  of 
this  peculiar  growth  is  an  increased  secretion  in  front 
and  a  diminished  secretion  behind.  The  effect,  how- 
ever, of  the  form  of  foot  produced  by  this  deviation 
from  normal  conditions  is  to  almost  totally  exempt  such 
feet  from  the  liability  to  corn,  on  account  of  the  inordi- 
nate height  and  length  of  toe  relatively  to  the  heels. 

Other  Causes  of  Corn. 

217.  But  there  are  other  causes  of  corn  yet  to  be 
noticed.  All  else  being  equal,  the  shoe  itself  often  be- 
comes instrumental  in  the  production  of  corn. 

1 .  By  being  fitted  too  closely  at  the  heels  when  ap- 
plied to  a  fungous  foot,  where  the  constant  tread  often 
works  the  shoe  inwardly  of  the  wall  at  the  heels  and 
causes  the  weight  to  be  borne  by  the  sole  and  bars. 

2.  From  one  of  the  calks  wearing  faster  than  the 
other,  thus  causing  the  greatest  weight  to  be  borne  by 
the  highest  heel,   either  standing  or  in  motion. 

3.  A  shoe  with  high  heels  and  no  toes  will  also  cause 
corn. 

4.  Such  a  shoe  applied  to  a  truly  sound  and  well- 
balanced  foot  not  only  may  produce  corn,  but  render 
the  foot  liable  to  any  of  the  diseases  produced  by  high 
heels. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  125 

It  is  worth  remembering,  then,  that  the  form  of  the 
foot  first  of  all,  then  the  attitude  or  mode  of  standing; 
next  the  red  stain  upon  the  sole,  as  a  positive  sign ;  and 
lastly  the  unwillingness  of  the  horse  to  extend  himself 
will  enable  any  fair  observer  of  horses  to  diagnose  the 
existence  of  corn  or  tendencies  to  it  in  its  earliest 
stage. 

From  all  the  foregoing  considerations  I  can  arrive  at 
no  other  conclusion  than  that  nearly  all  diseases  of  the 
feet  and  legs  of  horses,  including  corn,  are  caused  by 
deviations  from  the  natural  size  and  form  of  the  foot ; 
such  deviations  being  aided  by  certain  qualities  of  the 
horny  structure,  by  overgrowth,  and  by  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  shoeing. 

A  Remarkable  Phenomenon. 

218.  If  any  of  my  readers  should  go  to  France  and 
have  occasion  to  examine  horses  there,  they  must  be 
prepared  for  a  somewhat — to  me — "surprising  fact"  as 
regards  the  symptoms  of  corn.  I  learn  from  Professor 
Liantard's  translation  of  Zundel's  work  on  lameness  of 
horses  that  "  when  lame  with  a  corn  the  horse  carries 
his  leg  fonvard  of  a  plumb  line  and  keeps  it  semiflexed  at 
the  fetlock."  I  presume  this  must  be  a  habit,  or  perhaps 
a  custom  of  the  country,  as  I  have  never  seen  an  American 
horse  act  that  way ;  the  practice  in  this  country  being 
invariably  to  carry  the  leg  backward  of  the  plumb  line. 

Another  Symptom 

219.  Of  corn  is  the  horse  walking  on  his  toe  some- 
times as  if  he  were  suffering  some  acute  pain  in  his 
heel,  which  he  undoubtedly  is  and  is  trying  to  relieve  it. 
Sometimes  in  doing  this  he  causes  the  perforans  to  swell, 
and  the  swelling  is  very  apt  to  be  attributed  to  another 


126  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

cause,  namely,  undue  height  or  length  of  toe.  A  seem- 
ing paradox  must  be  explained  here.  It  would  appear 
as  if  we  could  have  swelled  tendons  from  high  toes  or 
high  heels,  which  would  appear  inconsistent  with  our 
theory. 

The  horse  is  suffering  from  pain  in  the  back  part  of 
his  foot  in  both  cases,  one  being  the  condition  called 
corn  and  the  other  an  unduly  elevated  toe,  and  in  both 
cases  he  seeks  for  ease  in  the  most  favorable  position  for 
obtaining  it,  that  is,  walking  on  his  toes. 

The  Horseman's  Compass. 

220.  What  the  mariner's  compass  is  to  the  mariner 
the  horseman's  chart  should  be  to  the  horseman,  whether 
he  be  a  veterinarian,  horseshoer,  or  an  amateur  of  horses 
(see  Cut  9).  Where  the  leg  at  rest  is  carried  in  front  of 
a  plumb  line,  the  heels  require  raising  and  the  toe  to 
be  lowered ;  and  when  at  rest  if  the  leg  is  carried  back- 
ward of  a  plumb  line,  the  toe  needs  raising  and  the  heels 
to  be  lowered. 


Morbid  Conditions  Resembling  Corn. 

221.  There  is  still  another  cause  in  operation  to  pro- 
duce a  morbid  condition  resembling  corn,  and  I  have  no 
doubt  is  often  mistaken  for  it,  as  it  is  indicated  by  a 
blood-stain  in  the  same  locality.  While  this  blood-stain 
is  generally  produced  by  a  contracted  condition  of  the 
quarter,  it  can  be  and  is  caused  sometimes  by  expa?ision 
of  the  quarter  instead  of  contraction.  The  laminae  can 
be  torn  asunder  in  an  outward  direction  as  well  as 
crushed  together  inwardly.  This  must  cause  pain  and 
a  rupture  of  small  blood-vessels  and  the  blood  to  fall 
down  and  stain  the  horn  tissues. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  V2J 


The  Remedy. 

222.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  lower  and  narrow  the 
heel  at  its  fullest  side,  which  is  generally  the  inside,  if 
there  is  hoof  enough ;  if  there  is  not,  let  the  shoe  be 
thicker  on  the  opposite  side  and  thick  enough  to  give  a 
broad  surface  and  height  to  the  outside  heel  calk,  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  inside,  and  to  regulate  the 
height  of  the  toe  by  this  treatment.  Balancing  the  foot, 
however,  is  not  sufficient  in  all  cases,  for  the  treatment 
must  depend  upon  the  severity  of  the  case.  In  the 
earlier  stages,  after  balancing  the  hoof  and  the  adjust- 
ment of  a  rocker  shoe,  the  corn  usually  cures  itself. 

Suppurating  Corn. 

223.  If  there  is  evidence  that  the  process  of  suppura- 
tion is  going  on,  an  opening  should  be  made  to  allow 
the  pus  to  escape,  taking  care  not  to  cut  too  deeply  so 
as  to  avoid  cutting  the  laminae  and  thereby  increasing 
the  inflammation.  A  warm  emollient  poultice  generally 
completes  the  cure. 

Severe  Cases. 

224.  If  the  horse  continues  lame  after  the  above 
treatment,  the  pus  having  been  discharged,  and  the  ani- 
mal is  evidently  in  much  pain,  it  must  be  regarded  as 
an  indication  that  the  soft  tissues  inside  of  the  hoof  are 
swollen,  and  that  the  pain  is  caused  by  the  pressure  of 
the  swollen  tissues  against  its  unyielding  horny  envelope. 
This  condition  is  best  combated  by  paring  away  all  the 
hard  external  surfaces  of  the  frog  and  sole  until  what 
remains  will  be  comparatively  soft  and  yield  readily  to 
the  pressure  of  the  thumb.  This  will  abate  the  pain  by 
allowing  the  walls  to  expand  under  the  pressure  of  the 


128  THE    FOOT   OF    THE   HORSE. 

swollen  tissues,  and  the  sole  and  frog  being  soft  and 
thin  will  bulge  a  little,  and  in  this  way  the  pressure 
will  be  relieved  and  the  pain  abated. 

In  addition  to  the  centre-bearing  shoe,  it  will  be  im- 
portant to  keep  the  under  surface  of  the  foot  moist  and. 
supple  all  the  time.  To  effect  this  we  have  but  to  place 
between  the  shoe  and  the  foot  a  pad  of  any  soft  material 
that  holds  moisture.  I  have  found  a  pad  of  cotton  or 
oakum  saturated  with  a  mixture  of  soft  soap  and  Caro- 
lina tar  in  equal  proportions  to  answer  the  purpose  very- 
well. 

Other  Contingencies. 

225.  Sometimes  the  prick  of  a  nail  in  shoeing  causes 
inflammation  and  suppuration.  If  after  evacuating  the 
pus  the  foot  does  not  get  well  under  the  foregoing  treat- 
ment, lose  no  time  in  calling  for  the  best  veterinary  ser- 
vices that  can  be  obtained.  Such  cases  call  for  medical 
as  well  as  surgical  treatment.  Underrunning  has  to  be 
dreaded  and  guarded  against.  All  such  cases  and  the 
disease  termed  quittor  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
a  good  veterinary  surgeon. 

General  Treatment  of  Corn. 

226.  The  general  treatment  best  adapted  to  corn 
after  the  foot  has  been  properly  balanced  is  a  bar  shoe 
made  rocker  fashion,  that  is  to  say,  thin  at  the  heels  and 
toe  and  high  in  the  middle,  as  in  Cut  21.  This  form  of 
shoe  prevents  jarring  of  the  heels  such  as  those  seen  in 
Cut  22.  If  the  horn  will  admit  of  being  cutaway  to  the 
extent  of  an  inch  and  a  quarter  of  its  bearing  surface  im- 
mediately under  the  seat  of  corn,  let  it  be  done;  if  the 
horn  will  not  admit  of  this,  fitting  the  shoe  to  meet  the 
indicated  requirement  will  do  just  as  well. 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  120, 

Stringhalt. 

Causes. 

227.  In  tracing  the  causes  of  certain  diseased  condi- 
tions of  horses'  feet  and  limbs  to  their  source,  we  are 
not  a  little  gratified  that  we  have  met  with  considerable 
success  in  this  direction.  Though  not  so  destructive  a 
malady  as  many  diseases  of  the  locomotory  organs,  it  is 
yet  one  which  has  engaged  the  attention  and  the  pens  of 
many  able  pathologists,  and  so  far  has  resisted  all  at- 
tempts to  divest  it  of  its  character  of  impenetrable  mys- 
tery. 

There  are  two  modes  of  reasoning :  one  is  from  cause 
to  effect;  the  other  is  from  effect  to  cause.  It  has 
seemed  to  me  that  all  I  have  read  has  been  reasoning 
from  effects  to  causes;  and  I  propose  to  reverse  this 
process  and  reason  from  causes  to  effects. 

So  far,  with  English  and  French  writers,  its  origin 
has  been  more  a  subject  of  guesswork  than  anything 
else — of  fancy  rather  than /«<:/. 

An  eminent  French  writer,  Bouley,  regards  it  as 
"but  an  exaggeration  of  a  physiological  fact,"  automatic 
in  its  operation.  Professor  Liantard  has  no  opinion 
whatever  of  his  own  to  offer,  but  nevertheless  he  deems 
it  incurable.  French  writers  generally  favor  the  opin- 
ion that  it  is  a  disease  of  the  hock  joint,  but  differ  as  to 
the  particular  seat  of  the  injury.  One  thinks  it  origi- 
nates in  a  dry  spavin,  and  another  ascribes  it  to  "  ero- 
sions of  the  large  articular  surface  of  the  hock  joint." 
Others  have  found  lesions  in  all  the  joints  of  the  hind 
leg,  and  therefore  refuse  to  believe  that  it  can  originate 
in  the  hock  joint. 

English  pathologists  regard  some  portion  of  the  ner- 
vous system  as  the  primary  source  of  the  disorder. 

Percival  conceived  it  to  arise  in  "  the  spinal  marrow 
9 


130  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

or  in  one  of  the  great  nervous  trunks  that  pass  to  the 
affected  leg."  Dick  located  it  in  the  "  lateral  ventricles 
of  the  brain."  Williams  thinks  it  is  choreic  in  its  nature, 
that  is,  something  like  Saint  Vitus'  dance.  This  writer 
also  has  seen  stringhalt  associated  with  "a  deposition 
of  melanotic  material  in  the  crural  nerves  of  a  gray 
horse,"  and  also  with  "exostosis  on  the  shaft  of  the 
ilium,"  and  with  "the  pressure  of  a  bone  spavin  upon 
the  nerves  of  the  hock,"  and  also  with  rheumatism. 
Williams  has  divided  the  tibial  nerves — the  nerves  which 
supply  the  hock  joint  with  sensation — to  no  purpose. 
That  gentleman,  besides  giving  his  own,  gives  the  views 
of  other  English  writers,  some  of  whom  thought  they 
had  traced  it  to  a  "  hypertrophied  condition  of  the  nerves 
given  off  from  the  lumbar  plexus,"  and  some  to  "the 
pressure  of  exostosis  upon  a  nerve,"  and  others  to 
"  paralysis  of  the  muscles  antagonistic  to  those  affected 
with  spasms." 

A  Mysterious  Malady. 

228.  From  these  brief  extracts  it  appears  that  every 
joint  of  the  limb,  and  the  entire  nervous  system  from 
the  brain  to  the  foot  and  from  centre  to  circumference, 
has  been  anatomized  and  investigated  and  called  upon 
to  yield  up  the  secret  source  of  stringhalt,  without  a 
single  echo  in  response.  Varnell  expressed  the  de- 
spondent feeling  of  all  writers  on  this  subject  in  the  fol- 
lowing words :  "  There  is  a  mystery  about  the  matter 
which  for  the  present  is  darkened  over  with  a  heavy 
mist  that  requires  considerable  research  to  clear  away." 

Personal  Observations. 

229.  As  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  curative  or  preventive 
measure  has  ever  been  suggested  for  this  malady.  It 
occurs  nearly  always  in  one  or  both  hind  limbs,  very 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  I  3  I 

rarely  in  a  fore  limb.  The  value  of  the  animal  affected 
with  stringhalt  depends  upon  the  intensity  of  the  ail- 
ment. In  some  cases  the  foot  affected  is  only  raised  a 
few  inches  higher  than  its  fellow,  and  in  others  only  at 
the  walking  gait.  Some  show  it  only  in  trotting,  and 
some  only  when  they  are  backing.  The  higher  the 
foot  is  raised,  the  more  quickly  it  has  to  be  lifted  and 
returned  to  the  ground.  This  impulsive  action  is  exe- 
cuted so  as  to  keep  time  with  the  movements  of  the 
other  leg.  If  the  foot  were  flexed  slowly,  it  would  not 
have  time  to  be  raised  two  or  even  three  feet  high  and 
to  descend  the  same  distance  when  in  action  and  cover 
as  much  ground  as  its  fellow  in  travelling  low.  Hence 
the  higher  the  foot  is  raised  the  more  spasmodically  the 
foot  must  revolve.  The  limb  is  sometimes  carried  so 
high  as  to  strike  against  the  belly  of  the  horse  with  the 
front  of  the  pastern  joint. 

Professor  Liantard  and  Stringhalt. 

230.  The  learned  professor  in  his  observations  on 
stringhalt  has  allowed  a  curious  error — if  it  is  not  a 
printer's  error — to  find  its  way  into  print.  In  his  work 
on  lameness  the  professor  says  that  the  horse  in  ex- 
treme cases  of  stringhalt  "  brings  the  front  part  of  the  foot 
in  violent  contact  with  the  abdomen  at  every  step."  The 
horse  who  can  do  this  is  constructed  upon  some  mechan- 
ical principle  with  which  I  am  unacquainted.  No  horse 
that  I  have  ever  observed  could  perform  this  remarkable 
feat.  Whenever  I  have  watched  a  horse  lift  his  hind 
leg  he  has  had  to  flex  his  hock  joint,  and  his  foot  is 
drawn  downward  and  backward  while  the  hock  is  bent, 
and  is  only  straightened  out  when  the  foot  is  on  the 
ground.  How  a  horse  can  kick  his  belly  with  his  foot 
without  bending  his  hock  is  a  mechanical  mystery  I  am 
unable  to  solve. 


132  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 


Resemblances  to  Stringhalt. 

231.  A  jerking  action  of  the  hind  limbs  is  frequently 
seen  under  various  conditions  other  than  stringhalt.  A 
wound  inflicted  upon  the  extensor  at  or  near  the  main 
point  of  its  insertion  into  the  apex  of  the  pedal  bone  is 
almost  sure  to  be  accompanied  by  a  movement  of  the 
leg  resembling  stringhalt ;  and  so  is  acute  laminitis  in 
the  forward  feet,  as  well  as  navicular  disease  when  the 
pain  is  very  severe.  In  all  these  cases  as  the  disease 
becomes  ameliorated  the  jerking  action  passes  away. 

Exploring  for  Causes. 

232.  When  I  began  first  to  pay  some  attention  to 
this  disease  and  its  causes,  over  forty  years  ago,  I  thought 
I  had  made  some  discoveries  as  to  the  causes  of  lame- 
ness, both  general  and  particular,  and  felt  the  assurance 
that  if  I  made  a  systematic  and  close  study  of  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  horse's  hind  leg,  I  might  be  rewarded  by  an- 
other discovery.  I  bought  stringhalt  horses  for  purposes 
of  experiment  and  study.  I  found  that  stringhalt  very 
rarely  came  on  suddenly.  A  gradual  development  of 
the  disease  was  the  rule.  My  next  observation  was  that 
stringhalt  horses  could  walk  better  on  perfectly  level 
and  smooth  ground  than  on  any  rough  or  uneven  sur- 
face. If  the  animal  was  but  slightly  affected  the  jerk 
would  be  scarcely  visible ;  or  from  being  constant,  would 
become  intermittent  on  smooth  ground.  None  went 
better  or  improved  on  ordinary  roads.  Then  instead  of 
watching  at  a  distance,  I  kept  close  to  the  animal  and 
observed  each  of  its  footprints.  Then  the  mechanism 
of  the  hock  joint  became  an  object  of  interest  and  study. 
I  noticed  in  all  cases  an  indisposition  to  let  the  leg  go 
backward  of  the  plumb  line  of  the  limb,   which  I  call 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  I  33 

pointing  in  motion.  Only  in  extremely  bad  cases  did  I 
observe  any  tendency  to  walk  on  the  toe.  But  the  going 
even  a  little  better  on  a  very  smooth  surface  suggested 
that  there  must  be  something  in  the  road  or  in  the  foot 
that  made  the  difference. 

I  then  had  a  level  bit  of  road  prepared,  and  had  the 
foot  cut  down  level  to  the  line  so  often  referred  to, 
wondering  what  the  result  would  be  of  bringing  the 
two  levels  together.  I  was  aware  before  that  time  of 
the  effect  of  a  balanced  foot  upon  spavin  and  some 
other  diseases,  but  I  never  dreamt  of  connecting  an  un- 
balanced foot  with  stringhalt;  yet  this  conclusion  was 
forced  upon  me  by  the  inexorable  logic  of  facts.  That 
conclusion  was  that  stringhalt  was  produced  by  the  self- 
same cause  as  spavin  and  many  other  diseases  of  the 
foot  and  leg,  and  that  the  same  remedy  was  applicable 
to  all  alike !  I  own  a  horse  at  the  present  time  on  which 
I  can  produce  stringhalt  by  means  of  a  shoe  high  on 
the  inside  toe;  and  by  removing  the  shoe  the  string- 
halt  disappears.  This  might  be  called  producing 
stringhalt  to  order.  I  confess  to  having  felt  more  gratifi- 
cation from  the  discovery  of  the  origin  of  stringhalt  than 
of  all  the  other  diseases  together. 

My  First  Case  of  Stringhalt. 

233.  The  first  case  I  undertook  to  relieve  or  cure  in 
New  York  was  that  of  a  horse  owned  by  Mr.  Isaac 
Smith,  now  a  resident  of  Brooklyn.  The  horse  was  a 
heavy  trucker,  having  stringhalt  in  one  leg  and  struck 
his  belly  at  every  step,  but  not  with  his  foot.  Mr.  Smith 
considered  the  cure  as  almost  miraculous.  The  treat- 
ment was  precisely  what  would  have  been  adopted  for 
spavin.  This  horse  worked  for  a  year  perfectly  sound, 
when  he  changed  owners  and  shoers,  and  the  old  mal- 
ady returned.     This  teaches  that  there  can  be  no  abso- 


134  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

lute  cure  for  troubles  of  the  feet  and  legs.  It  can  only 
be  for  as  long  as  the  foot  can  be  maintained  in  its  nor- 
mal and  healthy  conditions. 


The  Very  Worst  Case. 

234.  In  1876  I  undertook  the  cure  of  the  very  worst 
case  I  had  ever  seen.  He  was  affected  in  both  hind  legs 
and  struck  his  belly  at  every  step  he  took.  At  first 
starting  out  of  the  stable  he  would  hold  up  one  leg  so 
high  and  for  so  long  a  time  that  you  would  think  the 
animal  would  fall  over;  an  incident  which  has  been 
recorded  as  having  been  seen  by  Colonel  Fitzwygram, 
an  English  veterinary  writer.  Both  hind  feet  of  this 
case  were  badly  contracted,  and  the  animal  walked  upon 
his  toes,  never  letting  his  heels  touch  the  ground.  This 
case  was  treated  at  home. 

A  centre-bearing  shoe  a  little  higher  in  the  centre  than 
usual  was  placed  on  each  foot.  Improvements  were 
visible  day  after  day,  and  in  thirty  days  all  trace  of 
stringhalt  had  disappeared!  As  long  as  we  shod  this 
horse  he  went  sound ;  when  he  changed  shoers  his  old 
disease  returned  as  bad  as  ever.  Professor  Liantard's 
comment  on  this  case  was  that  "  the  horse  had  re- 
turned to  his  old  habit;"  as  if  stringhalt  was  noth- 
ing but  a  habit,  which  a  horse  could  adopt  or  return 
to  to  suit  his  own  sweet  will.  Has  the  deformity  of 
the  foot  and  imperfect  shoeing  nothing  to  do  with  the 
matter?  Is  going  lame  merely  a  habit?  Does  a  horse 
undergo  pain  and  suffering  simply  to  indulge  in  a  habit? 
Is  pointing  the  limb  nothing  but  habit?  If  stringhalt 
be  a  habit,  as  a  rule  it  can  be  easily  controlled. 

I  have  cited  these  cases  to  show  that  this  malady  has 
a  common  cause  with  all  other  ordinary  ailments  of  the 
foot  and  leg,  produced  by  overgrowth  of  hoof  and  un- 
scientific treatment  of  the  foot;  and  a  further  proof  of 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  135, 

their  identity  of  origin  is  the  fact  that  the  self-same 
mechanical  methods  of  shoeing  and  treatment  are  appro- 
priate in  all  diseases  that  spring  from  an  unbalanced 
condition  of  the  feet. 

I  am  not  surprised  that  Professor  Liantard  should 
regard  stringhalt  as  incurable  and  merely  habit. 
When  he  has  perused  these  pages  he  may  possibly  find 
some  reason  for  revising  his  list  of  incurable  diseases  in 
the  next  edition  of  his  work  on  "  Lameness  of  Horses." 

Still  a  Mysterious  Malady. 

235.  The  whole  of  the  mystery  of  stringhalt  has  not 
yet  been  cleared  up.  Although  we  know  the  cause  of 
it  and  have  it  in  our  power  very  largely  to  counteract  it 
and  to  cure  it  relatively,  yet  the  questions  as  to  the 
exact  manner  in  which  it  affects  the  nervous  system  or 
whether  it  has  any  favorite  location  are  still  involved 
in  as  much  mystery  as  ever.  I  believe  I  have  shown 
incontestably  that  diseases  of  bones  and  ligamentous 
structures  can  be  traced  to  the  same  fountain-head  as 
to  cause.  To  these  two  classes  of  structures  I  think 
may  fairly  be  added  a  third  class,  namely,  the  nerve 
structures.  I  don't  know  of  any  better  proof  that  can 
be  given  for  the  identity  of  the  cause  or  causes  of  the 
three  classes  of  disease  than  that  the  self -same  mechan- 
ical appliance — the  centre-bearing  shoe — is  the  all-suffi- 
cient remedy  for  the  diseases  in  each  class  with  scarce- 
ly an  exception.  All  writers  agree  in  the  opinion,  in 
which  I  also  agree,  that  whatever  the  original  cause 
may  be,  the  disease  must  be  attributed  to  some  derange- 
ment of  or  interference  with  some  portion  of  the  nerve; 
structures,  either  in  its  large  or  small  branches.  At  this. 
point  agreement  ends  and  the  widest  diversity  of  opin- 
ions begins.  Do  I  assume  too  much  in  supposing  that 
I  have  furnished  a  fresh  starting-point  for  future  inves- 
tigators ? 


136  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 


Observations  on  Stringhalt. 

236.  Perhaps,  too,  the  following  observations  may 
aid  in  the  discovery  of  the  exact  location  of  stringhalt. 
The  domain  to  be  explored  is  a  pretty  wide  one — that 
of  the  nervous  system.  Some  one  with  the  necessary 
qualifications  may  yet  succeed  in  clearing  up  the  mys- 
tery attending  this  question.  However  that  may  be,  I 
think  an  important  advance  has  been  made  in  removing 
stringhalt  from  the  list  of  incurable  diseases,  and  I 
fully  believe  it  will  be  absolutely  prevented  in  that 
good  time  coming  for  horses  when  the  requirements  of 
their  feet  will  have  become  fully  understood  and  sci- 
ence will  have  taken  the  place  of  empiricism  in  the  mat- 
ter of  shoeing. 

Symptoms  of  Stringhalt  and  Spavin  Compared. 

237.  In  studying  the  hock  joint  and  its  mechanism,  I 
observed  some  striking  differences  between  the  effects 
of  spavin  and  those  produced  by  stringhalt  upon  the 
movements  of  the  leg. 

1 .  Walking  on  the  toe  is  common  in  spavined  horses, 
while  no  sign  of  this  is  ever  seen  in  stringhalt,  except 
as  a  very  rare  exception. 

2.  A  spavined  horse  when  turning  round  or  moving 
sideways  will  touch  the  ground  lightly  with  the  toe, 
and  for  about  one-half  of  the  step  will  drag  the  toe 
along  the  ground ;  whereas  a  stringhalt  horse  will  jerk 
his  leg  up  and  allow  it  to  descend  quickly,  neither 
dragging  the  toe  nor  stepping  upon  it  lightly. 

3.  A  spavined  horse  on  first  starting  out  drags  his 
leg  until  it  gets  warmed  up;  while  a  stringhalt  leg  is 
lifted  spasmodically  from  the  start. 

4.  In  a  bad  case  of  spavin  the  horse  straightens  his 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  I  37 

hind  extremities  while  lying-  down,  evidently  to  relieve 
pain,  while  the  stringhalt  horse  doubles  up  his  extrem- 
ities, just  as  if  they  were  perfectly  sound.  Neverthe- 
less the  various  parts  of  the  hock  joint  are  simultaneously 
•compressed  by  one  common  cause,  namely,  the  undue 
height  and  length  of  the  toe.  The  tendons  which  pass 
over  the  hock  becoming  attached  to  a  foot  with  a  long 
toe  exerts  an  undue  force  of  compression  or  strain 
upon  every  substance,  texture,  or  tissue  which  enters 
into  the  formation  of  that  joint.  It  is  the  action  of  the 
flexor  and  the  extensor  tendons  combined  that  keeps  the 
hock  joint  and  the  pedal  joint  in  their  proper  positions 
and  angles  toward  each  other.  It  ought  to  be  plainly 
seen  what  a  powerful  influence  leverage  at  the  toe 
must  have  upon  the  movements  and  functions  of  the 
hock  joint.  This  fact  can  be  stated  as  follows :  As  you 
lengthen  or  raise  the  toe,  or  both,  the  spasm  is  increased ; 
as  you  diminish  the  height  and  length  of  the  toe  the 
spasm  is  diminished. 

Treatment  of  Stringhalt. 

238.  In  early  or  mild  cases  simply  balancing  the  foot 
will  suffice.  In  advanced  and  inveterate  cases  the 
centre-bearing  shoe  properly  adjusted  simply  works 
wonders. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  understood  that  every  case 
absolutely  without  exception  will  receive  benefit  from  it.  I 
have  met  with  one  case,  and  but  one,  that  received  no  ben- 
efit from  the  centre-bearing  shoe;  so  that  I  conclude 
more  exceptions  to  the  rule  may  be  found  in  practice 
hereafter.  Why  that  one  case  was  not  amenable  to  the 
treatment  successful  in  every  other  case  is  as  great  a 
mystery  to  me  as  the  exact  location  of  the  disorder.  To 
this  I  may  add  that  I  have  never  yet  seen  a  case  of 
stringhalt  associated  with  a  well-balanced  foot. 


I38  THE    FOOT   OF    THE   HORSE. 


Mechanism  of  Hock  Joint. 

239.  I  desire  to  record  one  more  observation  upon 
stringhalt  and  its  possible  if  not  probable  location.  It  can 
easily  be  observed  that  the  lower  part  of  the  leg,  that  is,. 
the  leg  below  the  hock,  can  only  be  raised  or  bent  while 
the  pastern  and  foot  are  folded  together  backward  and. 
downward,  and  that  when  the  pastern  joint  hac  reached 
its  limits  in  folding  the  hock  joint  has  reached  its  limits, 
of  flexion  or  folding  likewise ;  and  any  effort  beyond 
this  natural  limit  to  flex  the  hock  must  cause  an  abnor- 
mal compression  which  will  be  felt  principally  at  the 
hock  joint.  I  have  watched  the  leg  when  it  has  been, 
lifted  as  high  as  it  was  possible  to  lift  it,  when  the  leg- 
would  vibrate  for  an  instant,  as  if  the  forces  of  the 
flexors  and  extensors  were  about  equally  balanced,  and 
required  a  short  interval  for  the  forces  to  act  which  draw 
the  leg  downward.  In  consequence  of  the  severe  strains, 
and  compression  to  which  the  hock  joint  is  so  much  ex- 
posed as  an  agent  of  the  propelling  power,  I  am  inclined 
to  the  opinion  that  the  proximate  causes  of  stringhalt 
will  be  found  in  immediate  connection  with  the  hock 
joint. 

Stringhalt  Suddenly  Acquired. 

240.  Professor  Williams  records  an  aggravated  case 
of  stringhalt  as  being  acquired  in  one  night  and  becom- 
ing worse  with  age.  It  might  be  interesting  to  state 
that  I  had  a  similar  experience  Avith  a  horse  of  my  own 
many  years  ago.  I  drove  a  horse  about  forty  miles  one 
day  in  Canada,  in  the  month  of  March,  when  the  snow 
was  slushy  under  the  horse's  feet,  which  had  not  been, 
shod  for  several  months.  It  may  not  be  known  to  every 
reader  that  farm-horses  in  Canada  usually  go  all  the 
winter  without  shoeing,  as  long  as  the  snow   lasts,  as. 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  1 39 

they  remain  sharp  and  are  rarely  reset  before  spring ; 
therefore  the  feet  grow  long,  and  this  was  the  case  with 
my  horse.  After  a  forty-mile  drive  this  horse  devel- 
oped stringhalt  in  one  night.  The  longer  a  foot  has 
been  shod  the  more  snow  it  will  gather  at  the  toe,  and 
becoming  hardened  into  a  ball  at  the  toe  sets  up  a  lever- 
age which  strains  the  back  tendons,  and  in  proportion 
to  the  strain  will  be  the  compression  upon  the  hard  struc- 
tures of  the  hock  joint.  That  that  joint  was  the  seat  of 
trouble  in  this  case  was  shown  by  the  successful  treat- 
ment. The  hock  was  enveloped  in  a  mass  of  very  fine 
hay  which  was  held  in  position  by  several  very  long 
and  heavy  bandages.  The  sweating  process  which  I 
adopted  was  caused  by  using  hot  beef  brine,  kept  up  for 
several  hours.  The  legs  were  then  dried  and  kept  warm 
with  dry  bandages  until  next  day  at  noon,  when  the 
horse  was  so  much  better  that  he  was  driven  sixteen 
miles,  only  showing  some  degree  of  stringhalt  in  one 
leg.  The  sweating  process  was  renewed  upon  the  hock 
of  the  unsound  leg,  and  the  horse  went  as  well  as  usual 
the  next  day. 

Hock  Movements. 

241.  Observers  of  the  horse's  hock  movements  have 
noticed  that  some  horses  lift  their  hind  feet  higher 
sometimes  than  at  others,  and  higher  than  is  necessary 
at  all  times,  considering  it  waste  of  power  when  they  do 
so ;  but  why  they  do  it  has  not  been  so  readily  perceived . 
My  theory  throws  light  on  this  little  problem,  as  well 
as  a  few  others.  I  deem  it  a  fact  that  cannot  be  dis- 
proved— indeed,  it  is  one  that  is  susceptible  of  the  clear- 
est proof — that  a  long  and  high  toe  combined  with  un- 
due height  of  the  inside  half  of  the  foot  predisposes 
very  strongly  to  higher  lifting  of  the  foot,  which  neces- 
sarily involves  a  greater  flexion  of  the  hock.  Young 
and  sound  horses  when  they  acquire  feet  of  this  form 


140  THE  FOOT  OF  THE  HORSE. 

describe  what  has  been  called  the  half-moon  circle  with 
such  feet  upon  the  ground.  It  is  also  worthy  of  notice 
that  when  the  inside  half  of  the  foot  is  unduly  high  and 
the  inside  toe  high  and  long  with  it,  just  at  the  instant 
the  toe  leaves  the  ground  the  foot  is  jerked  up  suddenly 
and  lowered  slowly;  and  if  the  heels  are  raised  instead 
of  the  toe,  conjointly,  the  movements  of  the  foot  and  leg 
are  reversed — the  foot  is  raised  slowly  and  lowered  sud- 
denly. 

Effects  of  Snowballing. 

242.  It  is  common  enough  to  see  horses  in  winter 
raised  on  one  or  both  hind  feet  higher  than  usual,  the 
effect  of  snowballing.  Colts  and  young  horses  often 
show  a  disposition  to  stringhalt  after  balling  at  the  toe. 
The  sole  of  the  foot,  which  is  not  meant  to  carry  the 
whole  of  the  superincumbent  weight,  is  certainly  made 
to  do  so  when  a  snowball  gets  packed  between  the  shoe 
and  the  foot  and  stays  there.  After  such  cases,  when 
the  old  horn  has  been  removed,  red  stains  appear  which 
show  very  plainly  that  there  has  been  an  effusion  of 
blood  from  the  sensitive  sole  into  the  horn  tissues.  In 
my  opinion  this  is  due  to  snowballing. 

Quarter  Crack. 

How  Split  Hoof  is  Produced. 

243.  Much  learning  has  been  wasted,  as  far  as  the 
horse  is  concerned,  in  discussing  the  proximate  and  remote 
causes  of  split  hoof,  just  as  there  has  been  over  every 
other  disorder  of  the  foot.  An  unbalanced  foot  is  the 
parent  of  a  numerous  progeny  of  maladies  more  or  less 
destructive  to  the  horse,  and  split  hoof,  as  I  prefer  to 
call  it,  is  a  member  of  the  family.  The  cause  and  cure 
could  be  very  briefly  stated,  but  I  presume  it  will  be 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  141 

expected  of  me  that  I  should  give  some  account  of  the 
how  and  the  why  of  its  production. 


Professor  Williams  and  Split  Hoof. 

244.  In  glancing  at  what  Professor  Williams  has  said 
about  split  hoof,  I  was  surprised  at  how  little  he  has  to 
say  about  it.  All  he  has  to  say  will  hardly  furnish  me 
with  a  text  of  sufficient  scope  to  give  point  to  my  own 
observations.  But  for  the  use  I  make  of  his  utterances, 
I  hope  it  will  be  deemed  a  sufficient  compensation  if  I 
present  him  with  a  few  surprising  facts  and  a  few  theo- 
retic novelties. 

"  A  brittle  condition  of  the  wall  caused  by  a  perverted 
condition  of  the  secreting  structures,"  and  that  "it 
rarely  happens  on  the  outside."  This  is  the  sum  total  of 
the  information  to  be  found  on  split  hoof  in  a  book 
designed  and  used  as  a  text-book  in  veterinary  colleges 
in  this  country  and  in  England !  I  have  an  impres- 
sion, however,  that  the  subject  has  not  been  quite  ex- 
hausted in  the  utterances  above  quoted. 

What  is  the  matter  with  recent  writers  on  lameness? 
The  spirit  investigation  seems  to  be  dead  or  slumbering 
as  regards  foot  diseases.  One  writer  evidently  would 
willingly  hand  over  all  foot  diseases  to  the  horseshoer ; 
the  foot  he  considers  the  domain  of  the  horseshoer. 
These  veterinary  agnostics  seem  to  have  become  sullenly 
indifferent  to  the  consideration  of  foot  diseases. 


"Come,  let  us  Reason  Together." 

245.  To  begin  with,  I  take  issue  with  Professor  Wil- 
liams as  to  the  cause  of  split  hoof.  I  deny  that  a  per- 
verted condition  of  the  secreting  structures  is  the  cause 
of  split  hoof.  But  even  supposing  it  were,  what  in  the 
learned  professor's  opinion  causes  a  perverted  condition. 


142  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

of  the  secreting  structures?  There  must  have  been  a 
cause  for  this,  but  as  the  learned  professor  has  not 
delved  so  deeply  into  the  category  of  secondary  causes, 
I  will  assume  the  role  of  preceptor  to  the  professor.  A 
contracted  or  wired  in  condition  of  the  quarters  is  a 
much  more  obvious  immediate  cause  of  split  hoof  than 
'a  perverted  condition  of  the  secreting  structures.  The 
nearest  proximate  cause  of  split  hoof  is  a  contracted 
condition  of  whichever  quarter  the  split  may  affect;  and 
the  extent  of  the  split  depends  upon  the  angle  or  degree 
to  which  the  wall  is  bent  from  its  normal  shape.  No 
one  has  ever  seen  a  split  hoof  in  a  normally  shaped  foot. 
The  fact  is  demonstrable  that  the  heel  which  approaches 
nearest  to  the  centre  of  the  foot,  whether  it  be  the  out- 
side or  the  inside,  will  receive  more  weight  than  any 
other  part  of  the  foot  when  the  foot  is  placed  upon  the 
ground.  It  is  also  a  fact  that  the  quarter  receiving  this 
weight  is  pressed  inward  against  the  frog  tissues.  An- 
other factor  in  the  problem  is  this,  which  is  equally 
demonstrable  with  the  rest,  that  when  the  lower  margin 
of  the  hoof  is  contracted  the  upper  border  around  the 
coronet  becomes  expanded.  Moreover,  the  upper  margin 
of  the  hoof  is  very  thin,  gradually  becoming  thicker  as 
it  descends.  These  conditions  being  associated,  you 
will  not  have  long  to  wait  for  a  split  hoof.  You  know 
that  a  split  in  the  quarter  akvays  begins  at  the  top  and 
extends  downward. 

The  secretions  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  cause  of 
the  split,  the  split  being  produced  by  purely  mechanical 
causes ;  but  after  the  split  has  taken  place  the  lesion 
may  and  does  interfere  with  the  secreting  structures. 
Perverted  secretions !  Why,  as  soon  as  the  contracted 
quarter  is  expanded  and  the  expanded  upper  margin 
of  the  hoof  is  contracted,  the  split  is  invisible  and  the 
secretions  show  their  integrity  by  giving  you  an  inch  of 
new  hoof  in  about  three  months. 


THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  143 

This  may  be  a  surprising  fact  to  the  professor,  but  it 
is  a  fact  nevertheless. 


Rationale  of  Split  Hoof. 

246.  We  have  seen  that  a  contracted  quarter  is  the 
proximate  cause  of  split  hoof.  To  what  causes,  then,  are 
we  to  attribute  the  contracted  quarter?  There  are  two 
classes  of  causes — predisposing  and  exciting.  I  will 
deal  with  the  predisposing  first.  The  most  powerfully 
predisposing  cause  is  neglecting  to  cut  and  to  keep  cut 
the  wall  even  with  the  sole  of  the  foot,  that  is,  at  the 
line  of  union  between  sole  and  wall ;  for  it  is  then  that 
the  foot  is  in  its  strongest  and  best  form  for  all  purposes. 
When  the  foot  is  allowed  to  grow  beyond  the  line  re- 
ferred to,  in  that  same  proportion  will  the  foot  become 
weak  and  become  more  liable  to  splitting  from  purely 
mechanical  causes.  All  horn  beyond  this  line  is  excres- 
cent, and  until  cut  off  is  a  perpetual  menace  of  danger 
to  the  horn  structures  above  that  line.  The  higher  the 
foot  is  allowed  to  grow  the  greater  the  danger.  The 
slightest  divergence  from  a  perpendicular  bearing  will 
carry  one  heel  inward  toward  the  centre  of  the  foot. 
The  first  quarter  that  yields  must  be  the  weakest. 
From  the  moment  it  begins  to  give  way,  an  additional 
burden  is  thrown  upon  it  by  the  superincumbent  weight, 
and  the  strongest  part  of  the  hoof  has  the  least  to  carry 
and  therefore  is  less  exposed  to  injury  than  the  weakest 
quarter.  All  this  can  be  prevented  absolutely  by  keep- 
ing the  foot  down  to  its  natural  level.  An  additional 
cause  to  this  in  promoting  weakness  in  the  quarter  is 
■concaving  the  shoe  too  far  back.  The  heel  is  apt  to  get 
on  this  inward  bevel  and  bulging  at  the  coronet  and  a 
split  hoof  may  be  the  result. 

I  would  here  enter  my  protest  against  a  very  com- 
mon practice,  that  of  so-called  casing  the  heels.     This  is 


144  THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

a  mistake,  as  a  few  moments'  consideration  will  show. 
Supposing  a  foot  perfect  in  all  respects,  easing  the  heels 
unbalances  the  foot  to  that  extent  immediately  even  be- 
fore the  shoe  is  attached.  A  constant  see-saw  motion  is 
set  up  when  the  horse  is  travelling,  which  necessarily 
loosens  the  nails  in  the  front  part  of  the  foot,  and  this 
will  account  for  many  shoes  being  lost  on  the  road. 
The  gaps  between  the  heels  and  the  shoe  admits  sand 
and  dirt,  and  the  grinding  and  friction  produced  by  the 
motions  of  the  horse  must  wear  the  inside  quarter  the 
fastest,  as  it  is  the  thinnest  and  weakest  of  the  two  and, 
other  things  being  equal,  is  the  most  liable  to  become 
warped  and  bent  and  therefore  the  most  susceptible  to 
a  split  near  the  coronet.  For  a  proof  of  this,  inspect  a 
shoe  which  has  been  worn  by  a  horse  with  eased  heels, 
and  you  will  find  a  crease  in  the  web  of  the  shoe  and  a 
highly  polished  surface  which  is  deeper  on  the  inside 
than  the  outside  quarter. 

Another  powerfully  predisposing  cause  of  weakness 
-of  the  inside  quarter  is  the  common  practice  of  having 
less  nails  on  the  inside  than  on  the  outside  of  the  foot, 
the  alleged  reason  being  to  allow  the  foot  to  expand  and 
contract  on  one  side,  if  it  could  be  not  permitted  on  the 
other.  The  truth  of  the  matter  is  this:  Theoretically 
the  hoof  contracts  and  expands  at  every  step,  but  the 
amount  is  very  trifling  in  a  foot  of  the  natural  sir.e.  The: 
loss  of  this  trifling  degree  of  expansion  and  contraction 
is  a  much  less  evil  than  nailing  the  foot  more  on  one 
side  than  the  other. 


The  Treatment. 

247.  If  the  split  extends  but  a  short  distance,  it  can 
be  cured  in  most  instances  by  the  application  of  a  shoe 
closely  fitted  to  the  affected  quarter,  having  one  hole 
nearly  under  the  crack.     A  space  is  to  be  left  between 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  14$ 

the  shoe  and  wall  at  the  bearing  point  under  the  crack, 
from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  one-half  on  each  side  of  the 
crack  and  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  depth,  either 
by  cutting  the  hoof  or  depressing  the  shoe.  The  centre 
of  the  depression  should  be  immediately  under  the 
crack.  The  draft  of  the  nails  will  bring  down  the  hoof 
sufficient  to  close  the  fissure  at  the  coronet.  In  some- 
what advanced  cases  the  rocker  shoe  is  the  best,  as  seen 
at  Cut  21.  In  exceptionally  bad  cases,  when  the  foot  is 
split  throughout  from  top  to  bottom,  the  centre-bearing 
shoe  is  preferable,  as  this  causes  as  much  ease  and  rest 
to  the  foot  even  while  the  horse  is  at  work  as  the  common 
shoe  does  when  he  is  at  rest  in  the  stable. 

I  cannot  help  reiterating  the  remarkable  properties 
of  the  centre-bearing  shoe.  Whether  at  rest  or  in 
motion,  it  receives  the  weight  of  the  animal  and  con- 
centrates it  at  a  single  point,  that  point  being  at  the 
centre  of  the  foot,  which  enables  the  weight  to  be  car- 
ried with  greater  ease  than  it  can  be  carried  in  any  other 
way.  I  have  never  yet  met. with  a  split  hoof  so  bad 
that  it  did  not  yield  to  the  combined  effects  of  a  strong 
hoof  expander  and  a  centre-bearing  shoe,  without  any 
other  appliance  or  aid  whatsoever.  They  all  surrender 
instantly  to  this  method  of  treatment,  and  the  horse  goes 
to  work  right  azvay.  I  was  going  to  compare  this  method 
with  the  methods  recommended  in  works  on  lameness 
of  horses,  but  my  intention  has  changed,  as  I  now  think 
the  sooner  they  pass  from  the  memory  of  mankind  the. 
better  it  will  be  for  horses. 

Post-Natal  Influences. 

248.  I  don't  know  any  more  suitable  time  or  place 
than  the  present  for  recording  some  observations  which 
have  reference  to  the  causes  of  several  distinct  diseases 
of  the  foot  besides  and  including  split  hoof.     The  influ- 


146  the  foot  of  the  horse. 

ences  of  heredity,  or  as  some  prefer  to  call  them  pre- 
natal influences,  have  very  little  to  do,  in  my  opinion, 
with  the  majority  of  cases. 

I  propose  to  show  that  we  need  not  go  so  far  back 
as  heredity  for  the  origin  of  many  diseases,  since  there 
are  so  many  reasons  to  be  found  for  their  being  in  post- 
natal  influences  if  we  study  the  horse's  independent 
existence.  The  sucking  colt  has  to  spread  his  fore  legs 
to  obtain  his  sustenance  from  the  dam,  and  as  soon  as 
he  begins  to  eat  grass  he  is  too  frequently  handicapped 
by  a  short  neck  and  long  legs.  He  has  to  spread  his 
legs  and  lower  his  body  so  as  to  be  able  to  reach  the 
grass,  and  in  doing  so  his  weight  is  carried  by  the 
inside  of  the  fore  feet.  The  colt's  foot  is  small-cupped 
and  comparatively  soft  and  yielding  to  pressure.  Under 
this  mechanical  pressure  the  inside  of  the  fore  foot  gets 
a  bias  in  the  wrong  direction.  The  outside  of  the  foot 
may  or  may  not  preserve  its  normal  shape,  but  the  in- 
side becomes  the  lowest,  inclines  inward,  and  wears 
away  the  most.  This  changes  the  form  and  the  form 
changes  the  angle  of  bearing,  and  the  unequal  bearing 
becomes  a  strongly  predisposing  cause  of  contraction, 
split  hoof,  and  other  ill  results  when  the  requisite 
knowledge  for  correcting  or  counteracting  those  tenden- 
cies are  absent.  In  this  way  I  believe  many  a  deformity 
of  the  feet  has  a  beginning,  and  is  an  inheritance,  if  it 
be  one  at  all,  which  has  its  sources  in  imperfect  human 
knowledge  rather  than  in  a  predisposition  derived  from 
its  progenitors. 

Atrophy  of  Bone. 

249.  The  deformity  of  the  hoof  is  followed  by  a  cor- 
responding deformity  of  the  pedal  bone.  That  the 
bones  of  very  young  animals  are  softer  and  more  liable 
to  be  pressed  out  of  shape  by  unequal  and  unnatural 
pressure  upon  the  hoof,  I  think  will  hardly  admit  of 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  1 47 

question.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  is  a  verifiable  fact  that 
in  very  many  feet  which  have  been  examined  after  the 
death  of  the  animals  to  which  they  belonged,  the  inside 
wing  of  the  pedal  bone  has  been  found  to  be  smaller — 
in  some  considerably  smaller — than  the  outside  one ;  a 
condition  termed  atrophy,  or  wasting  of  the  bone.  I 
deem  it  a  reasonable  inference  in  such  cases  that  the 
deformed  hoof  and  the  malformed  pedal  bone  stand  in 
relation  to  each  other,  as  cause  and  effect.  My  view  is 
that  in  consequence  of  the  unequal  pressure  the  hoof 
and  the  wing  of  the  pedal  bone  immediately  over  it  at 
the  inside  quarter  are  both  alike  obstructed  in  their 
natural  growth  and  development,  and  that  they  never 
recover  from  their  retarded  development,  but  adapt 
themselves  as  well  as  they  may  to  abnormal  conditions. 
Later  on,  when  shoes  are  applied  to  their  feet  and  there 
is  no  recognition  of  the  true  state  of  things  weak  inside 
quarters  and  an  unbalanced  pedal  bone  with  their  at- 
tendant evils,  contraction  and  split  hoof,  are  the  very 
common  consequences. 

Keep  it  Down. 

250.  These  observations,  if  correct,  point  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  caring  for  and  paring  the  colt's  feet  almost  as 
soon  as  they  are  foaled.  Judicious  paring  will  counter- 
act the  effects  of  straddling,  so  injurious  to  the  feet  of 
colts.  The  rule  for  cutting  cannot  be  more  simple :  Don  t 
let  the  wall  project  beyond  the  sole — keep  it  down,  or  the 
pen  ilty  of  neglect  may  be  a  deformed  hoof,  a  malformed 
pedal  bone,  and  a  diminished  market  value.  I  know  of 
horses  Jo-day  which  in  consequence  of  a  weak  inside 
quarter  have  to  wear  an  expander  all  the  time  to  give 
them  equal  bearing  on  bo.th  sides  of  the  foot;  with  this 
equal  bearing  they  can  do  fast  work  comfortably,  with- 
out it  they  are  cripples. 


I48  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

Subject  Not  Exhausted. 

251.  I  have  not  yet  exhausted  the  subject  of  split 
hoof  and  its  causes,  but  I  could  not  say  less  and  do 
it  anything  like  justice.  I  could  not  dispose  of  the 
subject  in  eighteen  words.  Cut  17  is  an  illustration 
which  will  show  that  when  both  quarters  are  split  at 
the  same  time,  it  is  because  they  are  both  contracted  at 
the  same  time.  The  plantar  surface  of  such  a  foot 
shows  both  quarters  bent  in  immediately  behind  the 
wings  of  the  pedal  bone,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  trans- 
verse line ;  and  that  the  resistance  of  the  wings  of  the 
pedal  bone  is  what  causes  this  short  inward  curve  of 
the  quarters,  at  the  said  dotted  line,  and  renders  the 
quarters  liable  to  split  opposite  and  above  the  dotted 
line  referred  to.  It  goes  by  saying  that  when  the  hoof 
assumes  this  contracted  form  it  is  much  more  liable  to 
become  split  than  when  the  heels  have  been  kept 
wider  apart. 

As  regards  treatment,  I  think  enough  has  been  said 
to  prepare  the  shoer  for  successfully  coping  with  any  case 
of  split  hoof  that  arises  in  or  on  the  quarters. 

Front-Foot  Fissure. 

252.  We  have  been  considering  split  hoof  when  it 
occurs  in  the  quarters ;  we  have  now  to  consider  a  form 
of  split  hoof  which  is  found  in  the  front  of  the  foot,  a 
most  pestiferous  and  difficult  form  to  deal  with  when 
there  is  a  want  of  knowledge  in  relation  to  its  causes ; 
and  without  that  knowledge  there  can  be  no  just  appre- 
ciation of  the  remedy. 

Lest  I  should  be  accused  of  magnifying  this  evil  and 
the  difficulties  attending  its  cure,  I  will  give  the  exact 
words  of  Professor  Gamgee  in  regard  to  it,  to  be  found 
in  his  work  on  "Lameness  and  Shoeing,"  than  whom  a 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  149 

more  trustworthy  writer  does  not  exist.  He  says :  "  The 
origin,  cause,  and  really  bad  features  of  these  cases  is 
disease  of  the  coffin  bone.  It  was  only  by  numerous 
dissections  of  feet  thus  affected  that  any  right  conclu- 
sion could  have  been  arrived  at  on  these  very  trouble- 
some and  partially  incurable  forms  of  foot  disease. 
During  thirty  years  of  practice  I  attained  no  knowledge 
worth  consideration  about  these  feet  with  fissures  in 
front.  All  that  was  evident  was  that  the  horses  so 
affected  were  worked  in  a  miserable  plight,  with  a  foot 
bound  up  and  subjected  to  innumerable  operations,  until 
they  were  at  length  sent  to  the  slaughter-house." 

Rationale  of  Causes. 

253.  There  are  two  different  causes  for  this  ailment, 
which,  although  producing  fissures  in  the  same  part  of 
the  hoof,  vary  very  widely  in  character,  so  much  so 
that  it  is  important  those  causes  should  be  distinguished 
one  from  the  other.  One  cause  of  this  disease  orig- 
inates in  an  accidental  injury  to  the  coronary  band  from 
which  the  fibrous  portion  of  the  horny  wall  is  secreted ; 
the  other  springs  from  an  unbalanced  condition  of  the 
pedal  bone.  In  the  first  case  it  might  be  called  the 
-T-rtrinsic  and  in  the  latter  the  /wtrinsic  cause.  We  will 
explain  the  rationale  of  the  extrinsic  cause  first.  Any 
accidental  injury  to  the  coronary  ligament,  whether 
serious  or  trivial,  happening  at  or  near  the  centre  of  the 
foot,  is  very  apt  to  cause  a  fissure  at  this  point :  first, 
because  the  hoof  is  very  thin  at  its  junction  with  the 
coronary  ligament,  and,  secondly,  because  there  is  more 
movement  in  the  hoof  at  that  particular  point  than  at 
any  other  part  of  the  hoof  when  the  horse  is  in  motion, 
and  from  this  the  fibres  are  more  liable  to  be  rent 
asunder  there  than  at  any  other  point;  and  however 
small  the  beginning,  it  will  continue  until  a  new  bond 


I  50  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

of  union  is  set  up  between  the  coronary  ligament  and 
the  wall  of  the  hoof.  At  the  finishing  of  every  step  the 
coronary  ligament  is  strained  and  the  fissure  kept  open. 
As  before  remarked,  the  fibrous,  tough  portion  of  the 
wall  is  derived  from  the  coronary  band  by  secretion, 
and  there  being  a  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  secret- 
ing  structures,  there  is  a  corresponding  break  in  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  secret^  structures ;  and  that  is  the  way 
most  front  fissures  have  their  origin  when  the  cause  is 
extrinsic. 

Causes  Intrinsic. 

254*  We  will  now  trace  the  chain  of  zVztrinsic  causes 
which  lead  to  this  deplorable  effect  of  imperfect  knowl- 
edge; and  in  order  that  the  reader  may  have  a  clear 
comprehension  of  the  rationale  of  those  causes,  we  shall 
have  to  refer  again  to  the  mechanical  principles  in- 
volved in  the  construction  of  the  foot  and  the  source  of 
its  mechanical  derangements.  Let  it  be  remembered 
that  the  limbs  of  the  horse  are  so  constructed  that  all 
the  ailments  of  the  foot  affect  more  or  less  every  other 
portion  of  the  limb  of  which  it  forms  a  part. 

The  foot  is  the  fulcrum  of  the  entire  limb,  and  any 
alteration  in  the  bearings  of  the  fulcrum  will  have  cor- 
responding effects  upon  the  levers  and  pulleys  connected 
with  it. 

All  for  Want  of  Balance. 

255.  It  will  be  readily  understood  how  undue  height 
of  the  heels  predisposes  to  split  quarters ;  now  you  will 
be  prepared  for  the  fact  that  undue  height  of  the  heels 
also  produces  a  strain  upon  the  extensor  tendon  just 
where  it  is  inserted  into  the  apex  of  the  pedal  bone. 
As  surely  as  strain  upon  the  perforans  tendon  is  pro- 
duced by  a  too  high  toe,  just  as  surely  a  strain  is  pro- 
duced upon  the  extensor  tendon  by  too  high  heels. 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  I  5  I 


Position  of  Pedal  Bone. 

256.  The  next  factor  in  the  question  is  the  peculiar 
part  played  by  the  pedal  bone.  Let  it  be  recalled  that 
this  bone  receives  the  insertions  of  the  two  most  power- 
ful tendons  of  the  leg,  and  that  this  bone  is  the  medium 
through  which  or  by  which  the  movements  of  those  ten- 
dons are  reciprocated.  It  cannot  be  difficult  to  under- 
stand how  the  forces  conveyed  by  these  two  tendons  can 
be  equalized  and  balanced  by  the  set  of  the  pedal  bone ; 
and  how  any  alteration  of  this  set  would  destroy  the 
balance  of  the  forces  between  these  two  tendons,  no 
matter  whether  it  was  by  raising  or  lowering  the  heels 
or  by  raising  or  lowering  the  toes. 

Leverage  at  the  Heels. 

257.  Another  factor  in  this  problem  of  front-foot 
fissure  must  now  be  introduced.  How  adverse  leverage 
is  produced  at  the  toe  has  been  described.  Adverse 
leverage  at  the  heels  must  now  be  considered.  While 
the  leverage  at  the  toe  produces  a  direct  strain  upon  the 
perforans,  leverage  at  the  heels  has  the  same  effect  upon 
the  extensor,  and  at  no  point  is  that  strain  more  acutely 
felt  than  directly  in  front  at  the  apex  of  the  pedal  bone, 
where  the  movements  voluntary  and  involuntary  caused 
by  the  progressive  movements  are  greater  than  else- 
where in  that  region  of  the  hoof,  and  therefore  the 
most  acutely  felt.  The  extensor  at  this  point  is  exposed 
to  strain  and  injury  from  both  a  high  heel  and  a  high 
toe.  The  high  heels  produce  a  direct  strain ;  that  from 
the  high  toe  arises  from  a  doubling-up  of  the  pedal  bone, 
which  causes  its  apex  to  press  against  the  lower  end  of 
the  small  pastern  bone.  In  short,  the  pedal  bone  is  al- 
ways "between  the  devil  and  the  deep  sea."     It  is  only 


152  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

safe  when  it  enjoys  a  perfect  balance.  This  leverage  at 
the  heels  is  produced  by  long  shoes  and  high  calks  so 
commonly  to  be  seen  on  heavy,  slow  horses.  As  con- 
stant dropping  wears  away  stones,  constant  undue  strain 
upon  tendons,  whether  in  front  or  behind  the  leg,  will 
weaken  them.  The  strain  upon  the  perforans  produces 
the  morbid  condition  termed  navicular  disease,  when 
the  same  species  of  strain  produces  inflammation  in  the 
region  of  which  the  apex  of  the  pedal  bone  is  the  centre, 
and  this  creates  the  conditions  which  lead  to  front  fis- 
sure at  the  coronet.  In  this  case  a  perversion  of  the 
secretions  precedes  the  split  hoof;  in  the  quarters  the 
split  hoof  takes  precedence  of  the  perverted  secretions. 
The  most  important  of  the  tissues  at  this  point  are  the 
laminae,  from  their  double  function  of  secretion  and  of 
connecting  media,  for  whatever  impedes  or  destroys  the 
secretions  will  soon  cause  disconnection.  Defective 
secretions  will  soon  make  a  defective  hoof,  and  there- 
fore liable  to  split  upon  the  slightest  provocation. 

Peculiar  Form  of  Foot. 

258.  Please  refer  to  Cut  2.  This  is  a  form  of  foot 
which  I  deem  naturally  predisposed  to  front-foot  fis- 
sure ;  it  has  preternaturally  high  heels  independent  of 
shoeing,  and  has  to  be  shod  just  so  to  prevent  its  flying 
asunder. 

This  form  gives  a  constant  tilt  to  the  pedal  bone  for- 
ward at  the  apex  and  downward  at  the  toe,  producing 
strain  upon  the  extensor,  and  leading  to  that  form  of 
split  hoof  which  runs  through  the  hoof  from  top  to  bot- 
tom, or  from  bottom  to  top,  and  sometimes  half-way 
through  from  either  end.  This  kind  of  foot  is  mostly 
seen  in  heavy  horses  which  could  not  travel  without 
shoes,  and  the  shoe,  therefore,  becomes  a  necessary  part 
of  the  foot,  but  the  shoe  should  be  formed  so  as  not  to 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  I  53 

interfere  with  the  natural  balance  of  the  articulation. 
When  the  principles  involved  in  the  theory  I  am  en- 
deavoring to  explain  are  fully  understood,  there  will  be 
no  difficulty  in  adapting  shoes  to  this  particular  form 
of  foot  that  will  not  only  cure  these  fissures,  but,  what 
is  of  far  more  consequence,  will  absolutely  prevent  them. 

Concussion. 

259.  The  shock  and  concussion  produced  by  undue 
height  of  heels  become  greater  as  the  heels  of  the  shoes 
are  longer,  and  in  the  same  proportion  will  the  strain 
be  increased  on  the  extensor  just  where  it  unites  with 
the  pedal  bone.  This  often  causes  a  shortening  of  the 
step  or  lameness  even  before  any  fissure  has  taken  place. 
About  this  time  a  warning  symptom  may  be  detected 
at  the  spot  where  the  split  occurs.  It  is  that  of  a  slight 
depression,  a  scaly  and  ridgy  surface,  and  pain  being 
evinced  by  pressure  of  the  finger.  I  might  also  refer 
to  the  gap  made  as  the  foot  touches  the  ground  when  the 
heels  are  long  and  high,  between  the  toe  and  the  ground, 
varying  from  one  to  three  inches  in  different  horses. 
This  is  one  effect  of  the  loss  of  balance  upon  the  pedal 
bone.  With  unusually  low  heels,  the  toe  reaches  the 
ground  first.  The  best  shoe  for  such  a  foot  as  this  must 
meet  its  particular  requirements.  When  the  hoof  cannot 
be  lowered,  the  shoe  should  be  made  lower  and  shorter 
at  the  heels;  this  would  lessen  the  gap  referred  to, 
where  as  a  rule  the  gap  is  much  wider  than  in  feet 
formed  as  in  Cut  5,  which  are  apt  to  go  on  the  toe  in- 
stead of  the  heels. 

To  Prevent  Slipping. 

260.  In  shoeing  feet  as  shown  in  Cut  2,  for  slippery 
ground,  side  calks  should  be  preferred  to  heel  calks, 
welded  one  inch  forward  of  the  point  of  the  heel  of  the 


154  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

hoof,  as  seen  at  Fig.  26.  No  matter  about  the  length  of 
the  heels  or  branches  of  the  shoe ;  the  shorter  the  bear- 
ing part  of  the  shoe  is  at  the  heels  for  such  forms  of 
feet,  the  less  concussion  they  will  be  subjected  to ;  the 
less  strain,  and  therefore  the  less  inflammation,  there 
will  be  in  the  region  of  which  the  apex  of  the  pedal 
bone  is  the  centre,  just  where  it  is  united  with  the  ex- 
tensor ;  and  therefore  the  less  interference  there  will  be 
with  the  secreting  structures,  and  both  split  hoof  in 
front  and  at  the  quarters  will  be  prevented  by  that  mode 
of  shoeing.  If  the  horse  is  shod  with  a  common  shoe, 
the  toe  calks  should  be  set  back  to  correspond  with  the 
heel  calks. 

The  centre-bearing  shoe,  however,  is  the  standard 
shoe  for  every  species  of  split  hoof,  whether  in  front  or 
at  the  quarters,  for  all  forms  and  textures  of  feet  and 
for  every  breed  of  horses. 

Shoeing  for  Front  Fissure. 

261.  The  following  directions  for  shoeing  for  front 
fissure  should  be  duly  considered  and  thoroughly  mas- 
tered, if  they  are  to  be  dealt  with  effectually.  The  shoe 
should  be  a  bar  shoe ;  the  bar,  however,  is  not  intended 
for  the  frog  to  press  against,  but  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  firmness  to  the  shoe,  as  the  front  part  of  the  shoe 
must  be  hammered  down  thin.  The  shoes  are  to  be 
made  rocker-fashion,  and  according  to  the  size  of  the 
foot  so  must  be  the  size  and  extent  of  the  rockers. 
Large  horses  sometimes  require  the  rockers  to  be  from, 
one  inch  to  one  inch  and  a  quarter  high  in  the  centre, 
and  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  from  the  centre 
in  the  long  direction,  and  the  ends  tapered  so  that  each 
rocker  shall  be  the  segment  of  a  circle,  and  of  course 
they  should  be  both  of  the  same  size,  and  set  on  evenly 
so  as  not  to  wabble. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  1 55 


A  Solid  Foot. 

262.  No  part  of  the  rim  of  the  shoe  should  be  al- 
lowed to  touch  the  ground  while  the  horse  is  in  motion, 
for  if  the  toe  is  allowed  to  press  upon  the  ground  when 
the  foot  is  raised,  the  fissure  is  forced  apart  and  is  made 
to  gape  at  every  step,  and  no  horn  could  grow  down 
solid  under  such  circumstances.  It  is  intended  to  keep 
the  foot  as  solid  as  possible,  and  thereby  to  prevent  motion 
in  its  divided  parts,  so  that  growth  of  horn  may  be 
facilitated  rather  than  retarded.  The  slight  expansion 
and  contraction  natural  to  a  healthy  foot  must  be  sacri- 
ficed for  a  short  time  for  the  sake  of  a  greater  gain. 
Solid  growth  of  horn  can  only  be  promoted  by  prevent- 
ing motion  in  the  divided  parts. 

No  Easing  Off. 

263.  As  regards  nailing  on  the  bar  shoe  described, 
it  is  important  that  the  shoe  should  fit  snug  and  firm  at 
the  heels,  having  a  solid  bearing  at  the  quarters,  where 
the  casing-off  process  is  usually  indulged  in.  No  casing 
off  is  to  be  practised  here,  as  it  would  nullify  all  that 
could  be  done  besides.  Motion  at  the  quarters  especially 
would  produce  motion  in  the  divided  parts  at  the  fissure. 
The  nailing,  therefore,  should  be  carried  well  back  to 
fulfil  the  above-mentioned  intentions.  So  much  for 
the  heels;  now  for  the  toe.  A  suitable  space  is  to 
be  formed  at  the  toe  by  cutting  the  wall  an  inch  or 
more  on  each  side  of  the  centre  of  the  toe  to  allow  the 
draft  of  the  nails  at  the  toe  to  close  the  fissure  at  the 
coronet.  This  can  be  understood  and  carried  out  by 
any  handy  farrier  having  care  and  judgment.  Of  course 
the  length  and  depth  of  this  interspace  must  depend 
upon  the  size  of  the  foot,  the  extent  of  the  fissure,  and 


156  THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

the  skill  of  the  operator.  The  frog-  must  not  bear  upon 
the  bar  of  the  shoe,  for  the  reason  that  bearing  at  that 
point  would  counteract  the  closing  of  the  fissure  at  the 
coronet. 

Rationale  of  the  Rocker  Shoe. 

264.  The  rationale  of  the  rocker  shoe  in  these  partic- 
ular cases  admits  of  a  little  further  explanation.  But 
for  the  repose  given  by  this  shoe  to  the  pedal  articula- 
tion, the  coronary  bone  by  its  forward  and  backward 
movements  would  press  against  the  fissure  every  time 
the  toe  left  the  ground,  and  thereby  check  the  growth 
of  solid  matter.  We  are  not  seeking  to  unite  the  divided 
fibres — they  can  never  be  united.  It  is  the  nascent  un- 
divided horn  fibres  that  need  protection.  This  is  the 
essential  element  of  the  curative  process.  It  may  as 
well  be  observed  also  that  the  smaller  the  compass  of 
the  ground-bearing  surface  of  the  foot,  the  more  firmly 
can  a  shoe  be  attached  to  it ;  and  furthermore,  the  smaller 
the  compass  of  bearing  the  less  degree  of  articulation 
of  the  joint  is  required.  It  is  equally  true  in  the  pro- 
portion in  which  the  bearing  is  drawn  to  a  central  point. 
Strain  will  be  lessened  and  repose  given  to  the  articula- 
tion, either  in  action  or  at  rest,  thus  giving  nature  a 
chance  to  exert  her  self-healing  powers.  The  centre- 
bearing  shoe  can  be  thus  demonstrated  to  be  in  fact  and 
theory  both  the  best  safeguard  against  injuries  that  has 
yet  been  invented  or  discovered,  as  far  as  my  knowledge 
of  the  matter  extends. 

Professor  Gamgee. 

265.  Professor  Gamgee  concludes  his  article  on  front- 
foot  fissure  by  the  statement  that  he  had  made  numer- 
ous dissections  of  feet  affected  by  that  disease,  and  that 
"  he  had  become  satisfied  that  the  front  part  of  the  coffin 


THE    FOOT   OF    THE    HORSE.  1 57 

bone  was  the  seat  of  mischief,"  and  that  he  thought  was 
"a  complete  solution  of  the  matter."  Whatever  the 
professor  may  consider  a  complete  solution  of  the  matter, 
I  could  only  regard  as  a  complete  solution  of  the  matter 
a  rational  history  of  its  primary  and  secondary  causes, 
and  the  discovery  of  a  device  which  will  absolutely  pre- 
vent or  cure' it.  Whether  the  professor's  "complete 
solution  of  the  matter"  can  be  judged  favorably  by  this 
criterion  or  not,  I  will  cite  the  professor's  own  words: 
"  Usefulness  and  care  is  all  that  can  be  looked  for  under 
the  best  management;  perfect  cure  should  not  be  ex- 
pected, as  it  can  rarely  be  accomplished." 

It  has  been  my  more  fortunate  experience  to  cure 
every  case  of  split  hoof,  whether  at  the  front  or  at  the 
quarter,  that  I  have  had  to  treat  during  the  last  twenty- 
five  years  right  here  in  the  city  of  New  York,  by  the 
methods  and  according  to  the  principles  described  in 
this  article.  My  motive  in  making  this  comparison  is 
not  the  desire  to  belittle  others  or  to  exalt  myself.  It 
has  been  done  purely  for  purposes  of  instruction.  Pro- 
fessor Gamgee  is  vastly  my  superior  in  intellectual  abil- 
ity and  literary  attainments.  He  has  done  what  he 
could  to  improve  and  to  advance  the  vocation  of  horse- 
shoeing, appreciating  as  he  does  its  great  importance  to 
society ;  but  that  it  has  not  been  given  to  him  to  dis- 
cover the  basic  facts  upon  which  a  new  and  enduring 
system  of  horseshoeing  in  full  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  nature  and,  fortunately,  the  requirements  of  civiliza- 
tion, his  own  language,  cited  elsewhere  in  these  pages, 
is  a  sufficient  answer.  I  believe  the  time  will  come,  but 
not  yet,  when  the  principle  of  shoeing  for  all  horses  of 
whatever  class  or  kind,  and  kept  for  whatever  purpose, 
will  be  that  of  light  or  heavy  metal  plates,  having  on 
the  ground  surface  varying  degrees  of  curvature  suiting 
the  requirements  of  each  case.  From  the  few  experi- 
ments I  have  made  upon  racing  and  trotting  horses,  I 


158  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

believe  that  here  is  an  unexplored  region  for  experi- 
ments that  promise  a  rich  return  in  the  development  of 
speed  without  waste  of  power.  If  ever  this  principle 
becomes  common,  we  shall  have  fewer  accidental  injuries 
to  the  feet,  and  diseases  from  other  causes  be  almost 
totally  unknown.  I  believe  emphatically  this  principle 
will  be  embodied  in  the  horseshoe  of  the  future. 


Knuckling. 

266.  Knuckling  is  an  ailment  common  to  all  breeds 
of  horses  and  horses  used  for  every  purpose. 

There  is  a  certain  conformation  to  the  pastern  or 
fetlock  joint  which  must  be  regarded  as  a  predisposing 
cause  of  this  ailment.  Horses  with  short  and  upright 
pasterns  are  more  subject  to  this  malformity  than  those 
with  oblique  pasterns.  Cut  5  represents  an  ankle 
which  is  always  liable  to  knuckling,  for  the  want  of 
knowing  how  to  keep  the  foot  properly  balanced  by  the 
paring-knife  and  the  shoe.  This  complaint  is  some- 
times of  an  intermittent  character,  from  the  fact  that 
sometimes,  more  perhaps  from  accident  than  design,  the 
foot  gets  tolerably  well  balanced,  and  the  horse  goes 
better  till  it  gets  out  of  shape  again. 

Why  Colts  Knuckle. 

It  has  been  observed  that  yearlings  often  knuckle 
during  the  winter,  and  return  to  their  normal  form  in 
summer,  by  simply  having  had  their  feet  worn  down 
on  harder  surfaces  than  can  be  found  during  the  winter 
season.  Why  is  this?  The  explanation  is  easy  enough. 
When  colts  are  housed  during  the  winter  the  feet  grow 
long,  as  in  Cut  1,  as  well  at  the  heels  as  at  the  toe. 
The  heels  by  their  forward  growth  reach  to  nearly  the 
centre  of  the  foot  and  cause  the  foot  to  rock  backward, 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  1 59 

thus  straining  at  the  back  tendons,  which  presses  the 
pastern  joint  out  of  its  proper  angle,  and  as  long  as  it 
continues  so  the  condition  is  termed  knuckling. 

Prevention  in  Colts. 

267.  Colts  from  a  country  free  from  snow  are  not  so 
disposed  to  this  deformity,  for  enjoying  more  field  ex- 
ercise the  walls  of  their  feet  are  more  apt  to  wear  even 
with  the  sole  than  those  of  their  snow-bound  cousins 
which  are  kept  within  doors  all  the  winter.  Colts  run- 
ning at  pasture,  you  may  be  sure,  will  escape  many 
troubles  which  others  endure.  As  a  rule  they  never 
become  knuckled.  The  remedy  is  very  simple  for  the 
cure  or  prevention  of  such  malformation  in  colts.  Cut 
their  feet  down  to  the  line  of  safety ;  practise  this  early 
and  often,  and  you  will  never  be  troubled  with  the  con- 
tingency termed  knuckling  as  long  as  you  do  so.  The 
reason  why  should  be  plain  enough.  When  the  wall  is 
pared  evenly  with  the  sole,  the  foot  enjoys  its  due  bal- 
ance and  there  is  no  rocking  backward,  and  therefore 
no  undue  strain  is  put  upon  the  perforans,  and  there  is 
no  pressing  of  the  pastern  joint  out  of  its  proper  posi- 
tion. 

Keeping  the  wall  on  a  level  with  the  sole  at  the  line 
of  safety  is  the  all-important  rule  either  to  prevent  or 
to  cure  knuckling.  It  should  be  done  once  every  month 
at  least,  and  twice  a  month  would  be  better.  This  rule 
applies  to  horses  and  colts  of  all  ages.  It  should  be 
known  to  all  horse-breeders  that  colts  suffer  much  from 
untrimmed  and  unbalanced  feet,  and  as  a  consequence 
their  owners  suffer  in  the  region  of  the  pocket-book ;  for 
the  consequences  of  untrimmed  feet  are  that  the  colts 
do  not  thrive  so  well,  and  that  the  muscles  of  their  hind 
quarters  do  not  attain  their  due  degree  of  development 
for  want  of  sufficient  exercise,  which  the  colts  are  indis- 


l60  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

posed  to  take  while  their  feet  are  in  trouble.  Many- 
horses  remain  deficient  in  their  hind  or  fore  quarters, 
as  long  as  they  live,  for  this  very  reason. 


Retarded  Development. 

268.  Fulness  and  perfection  of  the  hind  quarters 
depend  very  much  upon  the  condition  of  the  feet.  Six 
or  twelve  months  of  retarded  growth  at  one  or  two  years 
of  age  can  never  be  regained.  We  have  said  that  per- 
fect feet  formed  like  Cut  1  were  subject  to  knuckling ; 
it  might  also  be  stated  that  extra  low  heels  are  another 
cause  of  knuckling.  The  wall  of  a  perfect  foot  grows 
higher  all  round  its  circumference,  and  for  that  very 
reason  it  can  be  pared  and  yet  left  in  an  unbalanced 
state  (see  Cut  1 ,  and  the  dotted  lines  from  g  at  the  heel 
to  h  at  the  toe) .  The  heel,  by  being  cut  too  low  relatively 
to  the  toe,  will  draw  down  the  back  tendons,  and  their 
tcnsio)i  will  press  the  fetlock  forward,  causing  it  to  take 
an  opposite  angle,  which  is  knuckling.  The  remedy  in 
this  case  is  to  cut  the  toe  down  to  correspond  with  the 
heels,  and  thus  balance  the  foot. 

Symptoms. 

269.  In  perfectly  sound  feet  otherwise,  knuckling 
is  preceded  by  the  following  symptoms.  The  horse 
commences  to  point  more  or  less  with  the  affected  foot 
forward  of  a  plumb  line,  in  order  to  relieve  the  strain 
upon  the  back  tendons  caused  as  already  explained. 
As  the  knuckling  increases  the  pointing  decreases,  as 
knuckling  gives  more  ease  to  the  back  tendons  than 
pointing.  From  that  time  the  perforans  tendon  be- 
comes relieved,  and  the  extensor  tendon  and  the  apex 
of  the  pedal  bone  receive  the  weight  from  the  small, 
pastern ;  from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  latter  and  to* 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  l6l 

relieve  this  contingency  the  affected  foot  is  drawn  back- 
ward, and  instead  of  pointing  forward  he  points  back- 
ward. 

Causes. 

270.  I  have  seen  some  horses  knuckled  in  both  hind 
legs  from  causes  which  perhaps  are  not  commonly  sus- 
pected. When  a  horse  points  with  both  fore  legs  at  a 
forward  angle,  the  horse  extends  his  hind  legs  at  a  back- 
ward angle.  Now,  if  his  hind  pastern  be  of  the  up- 
right variety  the  strain  upon  the  perforans  will  cause 
the  knuckling  position,  which  will  not  occur  if  the  hind 
pasterns  are  oblique.  The  cure  of  the  knuckling  in  the 
hind  feet  in  such  a  case  is  the  cure  of  the  front  feet 
pointing,  for  when  the  latter  is  cured  the  former  passes 
away. 

Rocking  Backward. 

We  have  seen  that  knuckling  in  young  colts  is  caused 
by  the  foot  getting  long  and  rocking  backward  over  the 
heels.  It  is  plain  that  the  effect  of  rocking  backward  is 
to  lower  the  heels  and  strain  the  perforans.  Now  par- 
ing a  well-formed  foot  too  much  at  the  heel  has  precisely 
the  same  effect.  The  same  backward  rocking  effect  is 
produced  by  a  short  shoe  when  the  horse  is  travelling 
over  soft  ground  where  the  heels  sink  deeper  than  the 
toe.  This  latter  cause  is  usually  intermittent,  appear- 
ing only  when  the  horse  has  been  too  long  shod,  and 
usually  disappearing  with  the  next  shoeing.  The  per- 
manent remedy  for  this  is  keeping  the  foot  short,  and 
level  from  side  to  side.  The  remedy  for  the  colt's  feet 
is  the  frequent  use  of  the  paring-knife  and  rasp,  with 
the  view  of  keeping  them  in  good  shape,  that  is  to  say, 
perfectly  balanced  all  the  time. 


l62  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 


Veterinary  Surgeons  and  Horseshoers. 

271.  I  have  read  a  recent  work  on  lameness  of  horses, 
the  compiler  of  which  ascribes  knuckling  mainly  to  trau- 
matic causes.  This  surprised  me  very  much,  as  in  my 
experience  in  horseshoeing  the  causes  of  knuckling 
have  been  mainly  the  other  way.  The  unlearned  reader 
is  informed  that  traumatic  is  a  general  term  characteriz- 
ing diseases  which  proceed  from  wounds  and  accidental 
external  injuries.  Lest  the  scope  of  my  work  should 
be  mistaken,  I  would  again  refer  to  the  line  drawn  be- 
tween diseases  which  are  caused  by  accidents  and  those 
which  arise  from  intrinsic  causes.  The  former  class  is 
considered  to  belong  to  the  province  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon,  and  the  latter  to  that  of  the  horseshoer.  Dis- 
eases called  traumatic  require  medicinal  treatment  as 
well  as  surgical.  My  work  treats  of  those  diseases 
which  I  consider  have  a  mechanical  origin,  and  my 
remedial  treatment  is  always  mechanical,  not  medicinal. 
As  a  horseshoer,  not  as  a  veterinary  surgeon,  I  name 
the  diseases  which  I  think  arise  from  defective  modes 
of  shoeing  and  of  management  of  the  feet,  and  although 
this  embraces  a  pretty  wide  field  of  discussion  and  in- 
vestigation, it  does  not  cover  all  the  ground  concerning 
the  general  subject  of  lameness  of  horses.  The  history 
of  horseshoeing  shows  what  it  has  been  brought  to  by 
the  dictation  of  leaders  in  veterinary  science  during  the 
last  one  hundred  years.  May  it  not  be  possible  that 
improvements  may  proceed  from  the  ranks  of  horse- 
shoers themselves  ?  According  to  Professor  Gamgee  the 
modern  veterinary  surgeon  thinks  more  of  his  dignity 
than  of  his  duty,  and  is  willing  that  everything  relat- 
ing to  horseshoeing  and  foot  diseases  should  go  to  the 
horseshoer.  Although  penned  by  a  horseshoer,  the 
veterinary  surgeon  may  find  a  stray  fact  or  two  in  this 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  163 

"book,  here  and  there,  that  may  be  of  service  to  him  in 
his  professional  work.     At  least  I  hope  so. 


Causes  of  Knuckling. 

272.  As  these  causes  have  not  been  referred  to  by 
writers  on  lameness  of  horses,  I  hope  to  be  forgiven  for  re- 
ferring to  them,  as  so  little  seems  to  be  known  outside 
of  traumatic  causes,  which  are  always  visible  and  palpa- 
ble. For  one  case  arising  from  these  visible  and  palpa- 
ble injuries  to  the  perforans  tendon,  there  are  scores  of 
instances  which  exhibit  no  sign  of  any  external  injury 
whatever  by  which  they  may  be  accounted  for.  And 
the  book  referred  to  is  said  to  be  the  latest  scientific 
work  on  the  lameness  of  horses.  Every  one  in  the 
following  category  of  causes  is  in  itself  a  distinct  cause 
of  knuckling,  and  some  of  them  combine  and  produce 
the  same  effects : 

1 .  A  long  toe  standing  or  travelling  upon  soft  ground, 
or  standing  on  soft  bedding,  will  cause  the  foot  to  rock 
backward  and  strain  the  perforans  tendon.  Be  it  re- 
membered that  whatever  causes  a  strain  to  the  perforans 
tendon  is  a  cause  of  knuckling. 

2 .  A  high  toe  will  strain  the  perforans  on  any  kind  of 
surface. 

3.  A  long  and  high  toe  combined  will  produce  the 
same  effect  in  a  still  greater  degree  while  travelling. 

4.  A  contracted  outside  heel  corresponding  with  full 
inside  toe  will  lower  the  heels  and  cause  strain  to  the 
perforans. 

5.  Both  contracted  quarters,  like  Cut  17,  will  strain 
the  perforans. 

6.  A  shoe  fitted  short  at  both  heels  will  cause  them 
to  wear  faster  than  at  the  toe,  thereby  causing  strain  to 
the  perforans. 

7.  A  shoe  too  thin  at  the  heels,  any  shoe  thinner  at 


164  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

the  heels  than  at  the  toe,  will  produce  strain  upon  the 
perforans,  according  to  the  shape  and  growth  of  the 
foot. 

8.  A  shoe  fitted  too  tight  at  the  outer  heel,  will  wear 
fast  at  that  point,  and  cause  strain  to  the  perforans. 

9.  The  whole  inside  half  of  the  foot,  being  higher 
relatively  than  the  outside  half,  will  produce  strain 
upon  the  perforans  tendon,  and  will  derange  the  func- 
tions of  the  pedal  articulation.  In  short,  any  cause 
or  causes  combined  that  derange  the  seat  of  bearing 
in  the  pedal  articulation  and  cause  strain  upon  the 
perforans  tendon  will  produce  the  abnormal  condition 
termed  knuckling. 

The  Horseman's  Compass. 

273.  If  you  will  now  glance  at  the  chart  on  pointing, 
you  will  readily  perceive  how  these  causes  can  be  easily 
understood  by  any  one  who  can  tell  the  difference  be- 
tween an  upright  and  oblique  position.  Raising  the 
heels  in  order  to  relieve  the  perforans  tendon  is  good  as 
far  as  it  goes,  but  it  goes  such  a  very  little  way;  else 
why  do  we  see  so  many  knuckled  horses  in  our  streets, 
either  standing  or  travelling  ?  Can  nothing  more  be  done 
to  prevent  or  cure  this  dangerous  weakness  as  well  as 
unsightly  deformity  of  the  limb?  By  the  aid  of  the  chart 
referred  to  we  shall  gain  a  clear  insight  into  the  causes 
of  knuckling,  both  proximate  and  remote,  which  could 
not  be  gained  without  it.  When  a  horse  commences  to 
knuckle,  if  it  proceeds  from  being  too  high  on  the  inside 
half  of  the  foot,  whether  it  be  before  or  behind,  he  will 
either  stand  with  his  feet  close  to  each  other,  or  cross 
his  legs,  resting  one  foot  upon  the  other;  and  he  will 
travel  with  his  feet  unusually  close  together.  The 
effect  of  this  form  of  the  foot  will  also  cause  the  knee- 
sprung  condition  with  an  outward  direction  of  the  knee. 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  165 

Oblique  Pasterns. 

274.  Near  the  beginning  of  this  article  it  was  stated 
that  feet  formed  like  Cut  2  are  not  subject  to  knuckling, 
the  reason  being  that  such  forms  of  feet  are  always  too 
high  at  the  heels,  which  prevents  knuckling.  Now  this 
form  of  fetlock  has  knuckling  associated  with  it  occa- 
sionally, and  that  is  when  the  whole  inside  half  of  the 
foot  becomes  higher  than  the  outside  half.  It  has  also 
been  remarked  that  pasterns  formed  like  Cuts  12  and  13 
were  entirely  exempt  from  this  ailment.  The  reason 
for  this  exemption  is  that  the  obliquity  of  such  pasterns 
is  too  great  for  the  fetlock  to  be  forced  by  any  mechani- 
cal means,  to  leave  its  low  oblique  angle  for  an  opposite 
one.  Long  and  low  oblique  pasterns  are  not  so  sensi- 
tive to  changes  in  the  form  of  the  feet  as  the  more 
upright  ones.  The  straighter  the  pasterns,  all  else 
being  equal,  the  more  readily  it  becomes  affected  by 
changes  in  the  bearing  of  the  hoof. 

To  Prevent  Knuckling. 

275.  Knuckling  is  at  all  times  easier  prevented  than 
cured.  It  is  easy  to  cure  in  its  early  stages ;  but  when  it 
has  become  chronic  it  is  not  easily  disposed  of.  A  recent 
writer  on  knuckling,  in  summing  up  his  views,  stated  that 
"  the  prognosis  is  always  one  of  a  very  serious  character, 
and  the  disease  is  never  otherwise  than  exceedingly  re- 
fractory to  treatment."  I  have  had  a  more  fortunate 
experience  in  such  cases;  and  I  hope  and  expect  that 
when  the  writer  referred  to  shall  have  had  a  deeper  in- 
sight into  the  mechanism  of  the  foot  and  the  causes  of 
its  derangements,  and  shall  have  become  acquainted 
with  the  mysterious  properties  of  the  centre-bearing 
shoe,  he  will  record  a  more  successful  experience  in  the 
next  edition  of  his  work. 


.66  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 


The  Foot  the  Essential  Part  of  a  Horse. 

276.  Some  writers  think  that  working  the  animal  too 
young  must  be  considered  a  cause  of  knuckling.  Those 
who  assign  this  as  a  cause  of  knuckling  never  mention 
the  cause  or  causes  of  weakness  which  produce  this  ten- 
dency to  knuckle. 

When  the  foot  is  of  the  proper  natural  size  and  pro- 
portion, work,  by  which  I  mean  a  vigorous  exercise  of 
the  muscular  energies,  will  improve  the  tone  and  general 
condition  of  the  animals;  while  the  same  amount  of 
exercise  or  work,  all  else  being  equal,  exacted  of  a 
horse  whose  feet  are  out  of  due  proportion  and  ill-shapen 
and  unbalanced  would  make  him  dispirited  and  un- 
thrifty. The  foot — the  well-balanced  foot — is  the  es- 
sential part  or  property  of  the  horse.  When  a  young 
horse  becomes  knuckle-jointed,  I  have  invariably  found 
that  the  walls  of  the  foot  were  projecting  beyond  the  sole 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  thus  compelling  it  to  work 
under  the  disadvantages  of  a  leverage  force  at  the  toe 
arising  from  a  disproportioned  hoof. 


Treatment. 

277.  When  the  case  is  a  serious  one,  and  the  heels 
have  to  be  raised,  shorten  the  toe  at  the  same  time  as  much 
as  possible.  A  four-calk  shoe  works  best,  the  calks  being 
set  back,  bearing  in  mind  to  have  the  outside  calk  the 
largest  in  order  to  brace  the  outside  of  the  foot.  Never 
yet  has  a  pronounced  case  of  knuckling  been  cured  by 
raising  or  lengthening  the  toe,  or  by  welding  a  piece  of 
iron  to  the  shoe  projecting  more  or  less  from  the  front 
of  the  foot,  as  recommended  by  some  writers  on  knuck- 
ling. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  167 

Curb. 

Location. 

278.  The  hock  joint  is  not  only  the  seat  of  several 
diseases  such  as  bone  spasm,  bog  spavin,  thoroughpin, 
and  probably  stringhalt,  but  is  also  the  location  of  a  dis- 
eased condition,  the  common  name  of  which  is  curb. 

Definition. 

Curb  is  a  hard  callosity  in  its  advanced  stage,  or  but 
a  mere  soft  swelling  in  its  early  stage.  It  is  formed  on 
the  back  of  the  hock,  a  little  below  the  point  of  the 
hock,  or  os  calcis  as  we  shall  sometimes  call  it.  The 
limb  in  its  efforts  at  or  in  propulsion — for  the  hind  legs 
are  the  propellers  of  the  system — at  the  instant  that 
the  toe  leaves  the  ground  produces  the  greatest  amount 
of  strain  upon  all  the  tendons  of  the  leg,  but  especially 
upon  the  powerful  tendon  that  finds  its  lower  attach- 
ment upon  the  posterior  surface  of  the  os  calcis  or  back- 
ward bone  of  the  hock.  Curb  thus  claims  kinship  in 
the  manner  of  its  production  with  navicular  disease  and 
split  hoofs,  inasmuch  as  they  all  occur  at  the  termina- 
tion of  tendons,  where  there  is  the  greatest  amount  of 
indirect  motion,  and  consequently  where  the  greatest 
degree  of  strain  is  exerted  upon  those  tendons.  The 
point  of  the  hock  is  a  fulcrum,  and  so  is  the  navicular 
bone,  and  the  greatest  force  is  exerted  in  a  lever  be- 
tween the  fulcrum  and  the  lifting  point  or  short  end.. 
The  moment  of  greatest  strain  to  the  large  tendons  ini 
both  fore  and  hind  legs  is  when  the  toe  leaves  the 
ground  in  the  act  of  flexing  the  limbs  preparatory  to  a 
forward  movement.  Harmony  is  nature's  first  law  in 
the  movement  of  a  machine ;  while  harmony  reigns,  all 
goes  well.  I  need  not  state  the  converse  of  this,  proposi- 
tion. 


l68  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 


Limits  of  Endurance. 


279.  Every  piece  of  machinery  constructed  of  steel 
and  iron,  as  the  locomotive  engine  for  instance,  has  a  lim- 
ited capacity  for  strain  and  endurance.  It  is  even  so 
with  the  locomotory  machinery  of  the  horse.  Tendons 
and  ligaments  have  their  limits  of  strain,  and  bones  have 
their  limits  of  resistance  to  compression.  Any  strain  of 
one  or  compression  of  the  other  beyond  those  limits  will 
result  sooner  or  later,  as  the  cause  is  persistent,  in  vari- 
ous morbid  manifestations — one  of  which  is  the  spot 
designated  as  the  seat  of  curb.  They  are  liable  to  ap- 
pear alike  on  hard  or  soft  structures.  All  the  bony 
deposits  are  essentially  of  the  same  nature  and  produced 
by  the  same  cause,  compression,  and  all  the  lesions  of 
ligaments  and  tendons  are  essentially  of  the  same  char- 
acter, being  produced  by  undue  strain.  And  what  is 
equally  clear  and  demonstrable  is  the  fact  that  both 
these  classes  of  disease  are  produced  by  the  same  iden- 
tical cause — an  undue  elevation  and  extension  of  the  toe. 

Deranged  Machinery. 

280.  The  altered  bearing  of  the  foot  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  through  the  operation  of  this  cause,  produces 
derangements  of  the  forces  and  functions  of  every  tissue 
and  every  joint  composing  the  limb;  and  as  long  as 
this  fact  remains  an  unknown  factor  in  the  category  of 
causes  of  foot  and  other  diseases,  so  long  will  the  horse 
continue  to  be  a  martyr  to  human  ignorance  rather 
than  the  victim  of  a  cruel  and  unrelenting  law  of  nature. 

The  various  bones  of  the  hock  joint  are  bound  to- 
gether by  straps  and  bands  very  strongly  at  every  point 
where  strength  is  needed  most,  as  it  has  need  to  be  to 
carry  weight  and  resist  momentum,  and  exert  the  pro- 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  1 69 

pelling  power  besides.  Ligaments  and  bands  resist 
strain  in  every  direction ;  but  they  all  have  their  limits 
of  resistance.  It  is  obvious  too  that  the  os  calcis,  or 
highest  bone  of  the  hock,  is  the  fulcrum  of  the  lever 
which  lifts  the  leg  preparatory  to  a  forward  movement, 
and  being  so,  the  liability  to  strain  is  greater  at  this 
point  than  at  any  other  portion  of  the  tendon.  I 
hardly  need  say  that  unusually  violent  movements, 
such  as  rearing,  leaping,  sudden  reining-in,  etc.,  with 
or  without  the  adjunct  of  a  high  toe  will  greatly  increase 
this  liability.  Furthermore  the  seat  of  curb  is  an  im- 
portant centre  of  action.  The  tendon  of  the  largest  mus- 
cle of  the  leg  ends  exactly  at  that  point.  The  point  of 
the  hock  combines  the  properties  of  the  pulley  and  the 
lever,  and  the  nearer  the  forces  lifted  the  greater  the 
strain  will  be  upon  the  lifting  forces.  That  the  sprain 
of  the  tendon  produces  the  inflammatory  symptoms 
and  products  at  this  point  I  think  cannot  be  gainsaid. 
It  matters  little  whether  it  is  in  this,  that,  or  the  other 
tissue  principally ;  all  the  tissues  adjacent  to  the  sprain 
are  involved.  That  the  substance  of  the  os  calcis  is 
affected  by  inflammatory  action  cannot  be  doubted,  and 
possibly  forms  the  basis  of  that  permanent  enlargement 
which  characterizes  curb. 


A  Fertile  Region. 

281.  Not  only  curb  is  produced  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed, but  throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  perforans 
from  the  hock  to  its  insertion  into  the  pedal  bone,  and 
from  the  insertion  of  the  extensor  into  the  apex  of  the 
same  bone  back  again  to  the  hock,  a  region  is  bounded  by 
these  two  tendons  which  is  fertile  in  morbid  manifesta- 
tions of  one  kind  or  another.  Between  the  toe  and  the 
knee  of  the  fore  leg  and  the  toe  and  hock  of  the  hind 
leg  seem  to  concentrate  nearly  all  the  ills  which  hitherto 


170  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

seem  to  have  been  the  horse's  fatal  inheritance.  All 
along  the  line  down  the  back  of  the  leg  you  can  trace 
lesions  of  the  soft  structures,  and  all  the  way  up  the 
front  of  the  leg  may  be  traced  masses  of  morbid  ma- 
terial on  the  surfaces  of  the  bones,  all  the  results  of 
undue  strain  upon  the  tendons  and  ligaments  as  the 
active,  and  compression  of  the  bones  as  the  passive, 
agents  in  the  production  of  these  diseased  conditions, 
and  all  from  one  and  the  self-same  remote  cause,  and 
not  very  remote  either — an  abnormally  long  toe.  We 
cannot  conceive  that  curb  has  any  cause  peculiarly  its. 
own ;  that  is,  separate  and  distinct  from  other  morbid 
conditions  of  the  limb.  They  all  belong  to  the  same 
family.  The  family  likeness  is  stamped  upon  them  all. 
Nothing  stamps  their  identity  of  origin  so  much  as  the 
identity  of  the  remedy.  The  adverse  leverage  at  the 
toe  produces  the  strain ;  remove  the  leverage  at  the  toe 
and  the  strain  is  relaxed;  place  on  the  foot  a  centre- 
bearing  shoe,  and  every  particle  of  strain  is  removed 
from  the  previously  overstrained  ligaments  and  tendons. 
I  state  this  as  a  matter  of  fact  and  demonstration,  and. 
challenge  any  one  to  disprove  its  absolute  truth. 

A  Fixed  Fact. 

282.  This  is  not  a  theory,  but  a  fixed  and  unchange- 
able fact,  which  must  and  will  have  general  recognition^ 
not  only  as  a  fact  but  as  a  factor  of  the  first  importance 
in  the  methods  of  management  and  protection  for  horses' 
feet.  In  all  cases  of  curb,  immediate  relief  is  given  by 
cutting  down  the  foot  to  the  white  zone  so  often  referred 
to.  and  by  placing  on  the  foot  a  rocker  or  a  centre- 
bearing  shoe ;  no  animal  need  be  idle  longer  than  a  few 
days,  and  if  the  case  is  not  severe  he  will  be  able  to 
continue  his  work  right  along  without  lameness,  and 
suffer  no  disadvantage  whatever.     The  general  adapta- 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  \J\ 

bility  of  the  centre-bearing  shoe  to  all  forms  of  disease 
and  diseased  action  is  one  of  its  most  remarkable  fea- 
tures, and  of  course  confers  upon  it  a  property  of  great 
value,  and  constitutes  it  a  boon  of  no  mean  importance 
to  the  horse  and  his  owner.  Its  good  effects  are 
simply  marvellous.  The  "  half  hath  not  been  told"  of 
its  beneficial  influences.  In  most  cases  of  curb,  spavin, 
and  so-called  navicular  disease,  its  good  effects  are  in- 
stantaneous in  their  operation.  It  is  not  at  some  future 
time  that  the  good  effect  may  be  expected,  but  right 
there  and  right  then.  The  animal  walks  away  with  a 
long  stride,  doubtless  feeling  a  glad  surprise  at  the  novel 
experience  of  feet  without  pain. 

Curb  Varies. 

283.  It  is  proper  to  say  that  curb  varies  very  much  in 
size  and  degree.  At  first  it  seems  to  be  small  and  un- 
even in  circumference;  but  if  the  subject  of  it  is  kept 
at  work  regardless  of  the  enlargement  it  will  become 
larger,  and  the  longer  it  is  neglected  the  harder  it  will 
be  to  remove.  The  lameness  consequent  upon  curb 
varies  also  very  much  in  degree. 

Curby  Hock. 

284.  This  term  is  applied  to  hocks  which  have  a 
slight  enlargement  at  the  seat  of  curb,  but  in  which  no 
lameness  is  present. 

Any  deviation  from  the  straight  line  of  the  hock  upon 
its  outer  surface  denotes  either  a  coarsely  formed  os 
calcis  due  to  heredity,  or  a  condition  due  to  the  effects 
of  curb  of  which  the  evidences  of  its  former  existence 
had  not  entirely  disappeared.  Veterinary  experts  often 
differ  in  their  opinions  on  this  very  question ;  and  for 
this  reason  a  curby-looking  hock  will  always  be  an  object 
of  suspicion. 


172  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 


Curby  Hock  and  Sickle  Hock. 

285.  The  term  curby  hock  is  also  associated  with  the 
form  of  hock  sometimes  called  sickle  hock,  from  the  ante- 
rior outline  of  the  limb  resembling  the  agricultural  imple- 
ment called  a  sickle.  From  a  mechanical  point  of  view, 
this  form  of  hock  is  not  the  best  calculated  to  withstand 
any  violent  exertion;  the  toe,  the  bearing-point,  being 
so  far  forward  greater  force  is  required  to  act  upon  the 
foot  than  would  be  the  case  if  the  cannon  bone  stood 
more  vertically.  In  a  sickle-shaped  hock,  the  angle 
formed  by  the  thigh  and  leg  bones  being  much  more 
acute  than  when  the  cannon  bone  is  upright,  as  the 
leg  is  lifted  the  point  of  the  os  calcis  is  thrown  more 
obliquely  backward,  and  the  flexors  of  the  leg  are  com- 
pelled to  lift  it  at  a  double  disadvantage,  having  to  act 
against  the  transverse  angle  of  the  leg  and  the  point 
of  the  os  calcis  as  well.  The  strain  upon  the  tendon  at 
the  seat  of  curb  must  be  very  much  intensified,  and 
whatever  increases  that  strain  must  increase  the  liability 
to  curb  in  the  same  ratio. 


Characteristics  of  Pointing  in  Curb. 

286.  We  have  treated  very  many  cases  of  curb  in 
different  degrees  of  development.  A  horse  with  curb 
stands  pointing  forward  with  his  hind  feet,  and  travels 
the  same  way,  that  is,  with  his  legs  under  his  body, 
rather  than  by  letting  them  swing  back  goose-fashion. 
He  also  steps  short  and  throws  as  much  of  his  weight  as 
he  can  on  to  his  forward  feet.  This  he  does,  of  course, 
to  favor  his  affected  limb  or  limbs.  I  have  seen  some 
horses  so  severely  affected  and  so  lame  as  to  walk  upon 
the  hind  toe  entirely  with  the  view  of  straightening  the 
limb    and    obtaining   ease.     With    these    very    severe 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  I  73 

cases,  a  centre-bearing  shoe  modified  as  in  Cut  1 1 ,  where 
the  central  and  very  highest  part  of  the  ball  comes 
directly  under  the  insertion  of  the  perforans  at  letter 
k  and  line  f>,  proves  more  effective  than  any  other  kind 
of  treatment  I  have  even  seen  or  heard  of.  I  have  never 
yet  seen  a  case  where  inflammation  would  sooner  sub- 
side than  from  the  application  of  that  very  simple 
device. 

Sprain  of  Back  Tendons. 

Various  Effects  from  One  Cause. 

287.  In  our  discussion  of  the  nature  and  causes  of 
curb,  we  have  shown  that  many  forms  of  lameness  may 
justly  be  attributed  to  one  primary  cause ;  that  none  of 
them  have  a  distinct  and  separate  cause  from  the  others ; 
and  if  but  one  ailment  affects  a  limb  it  must  be  at  the  ex- 
pense of  other  portions  of  the  same  limb,  and  sometimes 
of  the  other  limbs.  It  must  be  obvious  that  the  differ- 
ent segments  of  the  column  of  bone  could  not  be  kept 
in  a  vertical  position  without  the  use  of  stays  and  braces 
in  the  front  and  at  the  back  of  the  column.  These  stays 
and  braces  are  mainly  the  perforatus  and  the  perforans 
at  the  back  of  the  leg  and  the  extensor  in  front  of  it. 
Each  effort  to  propel  is  always  dependent  upon  the  an- 
terior and  posterior  braces  for  support,  and  not  only  the 
front  and  back  parts  of  the  column  are  exposed  to  con- 
tingencies arising  from  derangements  of  the  machinery 
in  these  two  directions,  but,  as  already  pointed  out, 
there  are  as  many  points  from  which  danger  may  pro- 
ceed as  there  are  points  in  a  mariner's  compass. 

The  Pointing  Compass  or  Chart. 

288.  For  practical  purposes  we  have  reduced  these 
points  to  eight ;  and  from  one  point  alone  we  have  shown 
that  as  many  as  eight  different  forms  of  disease  can  pro- 


174  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

ceed  or  be  produced;  that  point  and  that  cause  of  dis- 
eases being  a  toe  which  may  be  too  long  or  too  high,  or 
both  conditions  combined.  As  a  proof  of  the  truth  of 
this  proposition  we  will  show  that  sprains  of  the  back 
tendons  are  due  to  the  self-same  cause  to  which  I  have 
ascribed  the  production  of  curb,  namely,  a  straight  long 
or  high  toe.  I  repeat  that  to  one  cause,  a  long  or  high 
toe  or  both  in  combination,  may  be  fairly  attributed 
ninety-nine  one-hundredths  of  the  cases  of  sprain  that 
occur  among  horses,  whether  it  comes  in  the  form  of  a 
curb  or  any  other  lesions  of  soft  tissues  as  the  tendons 
and  ligaments  below  the  knee,  or  the  hock. 

The  Centre-Bearing  Shoe 

289.  Will  be  a  valuable  auxiliary  to  veterinary  sur- 
geons in  the  treatment  of  sprains  of  every  class  and  kind, 
and  it  ought  to  prove  a  welcome  addition  to  his  somewhat 
limited  resources  in  cases  of  this  nature.  The  dreaded 
permanent  enlargements  and  shrinking  and  shortening 
of  tendons  will  be  considerably  reduced  in  number  and 
severity.  More  rapid  cures  will  be  effected  without 
turning  the  patients  out  to  grass  half  cured.  Blister- 
ing, and  firing  and  blistering,  will  be  in  less  frequent 
requisition.  From  the  humanitarian  point  of  view  I 
deem  this  will  be  a  considerable  gain ;  I  do  not  care  to 
regard  it  from  any  other.  A  large  percentage  of  loss 
must  be  attributed  to  inefficient  mechanical  methods  of 
treatment,  in  conjunction  with  the  purely  medicinal. 
The  only  suggestion  of  any  mechanical  aid  in  the  treat- 
ment of  sprains  which  I  have  read  of  in  books  is  that 
of  simply  raising  the  heel.  This  is  not  sufficient.  As 
will  be  seen,  the  peculiar  property  of  the  centre-bearing 
shoe  is  to  relieve  sprain  from  any  and  every  direction 
from  which  it  might  come. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that,  however  perfect  the 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  1 75 

foot  may  be,  there  is  no  absolute  safeguard  for  it 
against  such  accidents  as  stepping  into  a  hole  heel  down 
first.  Very  many  accidents,  however,  may  be  averted 
by  the  feet  being  kept  in  good  form  and  perfect  balance. 
The  best  feet  grow  rapidly,  and  many  of  them  require 
paring  every  fourteen  days.  The  tendency  of  natural 
growth  is  always  and  ever  to  give  undue  length  of  toe, 
and  to  unbalance  the  foot  by  the  growth  of  the  heels 
forward  and  downward.  Without  principles  to  guide 
or  rules  to  follow,  but  the  rule  of  thumb,  in  paring  and 
balancing  the  foot,  the  best  feet  are  just  as  liable  as  the 
poorest  to  the  perils  which  beset  the  horse  with  unbal- 
anced feet. 

The  next  form  of  foot  most  conducive  to  sprains  is 
represented  in  Cut  5.  In  this  form  the  toe  is  always 
high  in  comparison  with  the  heel.  We  seldom,  if  ever, 
find  a  horse  suffering  from  sprains  of  tendons  whose 
heels  have  a  tendency  to  grow  higher  than  the  toes,  as 
in  Cut  2.  These  are  simple  but  important  facts  as  re- 
gards horseshoeing,  neither  hard  to  understand  nor 
difficult  to  apply ;  and  if  utilized  as  I  hope  they  will  be 
throughout  our  broad  land,  they  will  be  as  valuable  in 
the  prevention  of  many  accidental  injuries  as  they  are 
in  the  remedial  treatment  of  every  other. 

Treatment  of  Sprains. 

290.  The  treatment  should  be  exactly  the  same  as 
that  prescribed  for  curb  or  ringbone,  having  its  seat  in 
the  central  line  of  the  pastern. 

1 .  The  wall  should  be  lowered  even  with  the  sole  at 
the  white  line  so  often  referred  to. 

2.  The  centre-bearing  shoe  should  be  modified  to 
suit  the  degree  of  lameness  or  the  circumstances  of  each 
particular  case.  Remember  that  the  greater  degree  of 
lameness  will  require  a  greater  depth  of  the  ball.     In 


176  THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

an  occasional  case  it  may  require  to  be  cone-shaped. 
Then  as  the  pain  and  lameness  diminish  the  shoe 
must  be  lowered.  Even  after  recovery,  this  style  of 
shoe  should  be  worn,  as  it  is  the  best  safeguard  against 
the  return  of  the  injury. 

Racers  and  Trotters. 

291.  In  cases  of  racers  and  trotters,  fever  and  lame- 
ness  will  become  manifest,  if  there  is  not  a  sufficient 
roll  of  the  shoe;  with  this  the  fever  and  lameness  will 
disappear.  As  to  the  length  of  time  that  should  be  al- 
lowed to  elapse  before  a  horse  is  worked,  it  may  be  said 
that  as  soon  as  the  fever  has  abated,  and  sometimes  before 
it  has  altogether  abated,  the  animal  should  be  started  a 
short  distance  to  test  his  capacity  for  work,  and  if  found 
to  work  well  the  distance  can  be  increased  at  each  suc- 
ceeding trial.  When  the  injuries  are  limited  to  sprain, 
and  there  is  no  decided,  rupture  or  severe  laceration  of 
the  tendon,  the  chances  are  that  he  will  follow  his  races 
without  much  risk.  I  have  followed  several  individual 
cases  with  strained  tendons  treated  as  just  described  for 
more  than  two  years,  doing  their  work,  and  trotting 
close  to  2  :  20.  The  swelling,  which  at  first  was  spread 
more  than  three  inches  over  the  tendons,  had  during 
that  time  and  while  at  work  been  gradually  lessening 
and  by  the  end  of  that  time  had  entirely  disappeared. 
As  a  rule,  enlargements  and  blemishes  disappear  after 
this  mechanical  method  of  treatment,  and  firing  or  blis- 
tering, or  both,  are  absolutely  dispensed  with.  Why 
enlargements  remain  after  the  old  style  of  treatment  is 
that  the  tendons  have  lost  a  portion  of  their  natural 
strength  during  their  illness,  cannot  stand  the  work  so 
well  after  as  before  the  injury,  with  the  same  old  form 
of  the  foot  and  the  same  old  style  of  the  shoe.  Like 
causes  will  always  produce  like   effects,  all  else  being 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  1 77 

equal.      "Constant    dropping  wears   away  stones,"  and 
,         the  constant  pegging  and  straining  at  the  toe  when  it 
leaves  the  ground  for  a  forward  step  keep  up  the  irri- 
tation and  consequent  enlargement. 


Windgalls. 

General  Observations. 

292.  To  the  list  of  injuries  caused  by  a  straight, 
long,  or  high  toe  or  both  combined  can  also  be  added 
the  morbid  swelling  called  windgall.  The  fact  that  they 
are  equally  distributed  on  both  sides  of  the  fetlock  goes 
to  show  that  the  foot  was  perfectly  straight  and  well- 
balanced  laterally  while  they  were  coming.  But  wind- 
galls  are  not  always  found  on  both  sides;  sometimes 
they  are  seen  on  one  side  only,  and  always  on  the  side 
on  which  the  foot  is  found  to  be  the  lowest  relatively  to 
the  other  side.  They  are  at  first  soft  and  puffy  swell- 
ings varying  in  size  from  a  peanut  to  a  walnut,  and 
sometimes  they  are  larger,  and  the  fluid  they  contain  is 
doubtless  the  product  of  inflammation  in  the  tissues  at 
that  point.  They  are  more  frequent  and  serious  when 
they  are  associated  with  long  oblique  pastern.  It  is  not 
wise  to  disregard  their  first  appearance.  The  judicious 
manipulation  of  a  wet  bandage  will  disperse  them  at 
first,  but  the  longer  they  stay  the  harder  they  are  to  be 
got  rid  of. 

Treatment. 

293.  Windgalls  when  caused  by  a  long  or  high 
straight  foot,  or  both  combined,  can  be  best  prevented 
or  cured  at  first  by  the  self-same  treatment  as  that  pre- 
scribed for  strain  of  the  back  tendons,  no  other  being 
necessary ;  and  when  it  occurs  on  one  side  only  it  should 
be  treated  as  spavin  would  be  treated  upon  the  same 


178  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

side.  A  horse's  foot  always  kept  short,  that  is  to  say,  the 
wall  kept  even  with  the  sole,  very  rarely,  if  ever,  has 
windgall.  Windgall  is  another  product  of  overgrowth 
of  the  wall  at  the  toe ;  so  that  the  slightest  appearances 
of  a  puff  at  the  fetlock  should  be  regarded  as  a  sure  sign 
that  the  toe  needs  shortening  and  lowering. 

The  Ear-Marks  of  the  Family. 

294.  There  is  a  species  of  windgall  that  makes  its 
appearance  in  another  locality,  but  it  has  the  ear-marks 
of  the  windgall  family.  It  is  found  in  the  hollow  spot 
between  the  os  calcis  or  point  of  the  hock  and  the  lower 
end  of  the  thigh  bone.  It  also  is  the  product  of  a  high  or 
long  toe,  or  both  combined.  It  is  somewhat  globular  in 
form,  and  varies  in  size  from  two  to  four  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Lameness  is  its  common  attendant,  but  the  lame- 
ness does  not  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  swelling,  that  is 
to  say,  that  a  small  swelling  may  be  attended  by  lameness, 
and  a  large  one  otherwise.  I  repeat,  the  treatment  for 
all  windgalls  should  be  the  same  as  that  for  sprains  of 
tendons ;  except  the  one-sided  windgalls,  which  should 
be  treated  for  whichever  side  they  happen  to  be  on,  as 
an  inside  or  outside  ringbone  should  be  treated. 

Mr.  Quintal's  Case. 

295.  In  1869,  I  treated  just  such  a  case  as  that  last 
described  for  Mr.  Joseph  Quintal,  a  wholesale  grocer  of 
Montreal,  Canada.  The  animal  was  a  very  valuable 
one,  and  all  that  the  best  professional  skill  could  do  or 
advise  to  be  done  had  been  tried  unstintingly.  The 
owner  was  very  reluctant  to  allow  any  non-professional 
to  treat  the  case.  That  reluctance,  however,  was  over- 
come by  a  friend  of  that  gentleman  who  had  become 
acquainted  with  me  and  my  theory.     I  simply  applied  a 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  I  79 

ball  shoe  and  nothing  else  was  done.     In  three  months 
the  swelling  had  entirely  disappeared. 

Originating  Causes. 

296.  This  ends  the  list  of  ailments  the  first  parent  or 
originating  cause  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  a  straight 
long  or  high  toe ;  and  the  best  proof  that  they  are  all 
the  progeny  of  one  parent  is  that  they  all  can  be  pre- 
vented, cured,  and  immediately  mitigated  by  the  self- 
same methods  of  paring  and  preparing  the  foot,  and  by 
the  application  of  the  same  mechanical  remedy,  with 
but  slight  modifications,  the  centre-bearing  shoe. 

Acute  Laminitis. 

General  Observations. 

297.  This  disease  is  more  common  to  city  horses 
than  horses  in  the  country.  As  a  rule,  it  is  very  de- 
structive to  horses  which  have  been  the  subjects  of  its 
attack,  for  after  an  acute  attack  a  great  many  horses  die, 
and  the  few  which  recover  temporarily  have  never  a 
very  good  time  of  it  afterward.  Their  feet  become 
ridgy  and  deformed,  and  the  condition  termed  drop  sole 
is  a  too  frequent  sequel  of  the  disorder.  There  is  a  re- 
markable peculiarity  attending  this  disease,  which  so  far 
as  I  know  cannot  be  said  of  any  other  specific  disease 
of  the  foot  or  which  arises  from  intrinsic  causes.  Some- 
times diseases  of  the  lungs  or  bowels  will  seem  to  quit 
either  of  those  regions,  and  intrench  themselves,  as  it 
were,  in  the  feet.  Learned  pathologists,  of  which  I  do 
not  profess  to  be  one  outside  of  the  foot,  call  this  trans- 
mission of  disease  from  one  organ  to  another  metastasis. 
I  have  remarked  that  during  some  of  these  attacks  of 
laminitis  the  tendency  of  the  entire  system  is  to  shed 
the  hair  very  freely,  and  it  always  seemed  to  me  the 


ISO  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

hoof  itself  could  part  company  with  the  foot  with  a  very 
little  provocation.  Hair  and  hoof,  remember,  are  com- 
posed essentially  of  the  same  substance ;  it  only  differs 
in  form. 

Causes. 

298.  Laminitis  may  be  brought  on  by  long  drives 
which  cause  great  exhaustion ;  by  standing  too  long  on 
the  feet  in  railway  cars,  on  steamboats,  and  on  ship- 
board in  sea  voyages.  Getting  chilled  when  heated,  by 
a  sudden  cold  breeze  from  a  lake,  or  by  the  sea,  or  on 
a  ferry-boat,  or  by  drinking  too  much  cold  water  when 
heated — in  short,  any  circumstance  under  which  the 
horse  is  exposed  to  a  chill,  whether  it  be  from  cold  air 
externally,  or  from  drinking  too  cold  water  internally. 

A  Not  Uncommon  Cause 

of  laminitis  is  driving  a  newly  purchased  green  horse 
from  the  country  in  order  to  test  his  capabilities  before 
he  has  been  put  into  working  condition — laminitis  is  the 
usual  consequence. 

The  Cause  of  Causes, 

299.  However,  is  the  unbalanced  condition  of  the 
feet.  When  the  foot  is  in  a  healthy  condition,  the  lam- 
inae of  the  feet  will  sustain  great  weight  without  yield- 
ing, all  else  being  equal ;  but  any  departure  from  normal 
conditions,  or  any  undue  taxation  of  their  strength,  will 
compel  them  to  yield  to  a  superior  force.  In  normal 
conditions  there  is  less  leverage  force  at  the  toe  to  harass 
and  distress  the  laminae,  but  with  an  overgrown  toe  and 
a  disproportioned  hoof  generally  two  forces  come  into 
play,  the  effects  of  both  being  to  derange  and  disorgan- 
ize the  laminated  structures.     The  front  part  of  the  foot 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  l8l 

is  the  area  of  disturbance,  the  storm-centre  as  it  were, 
from  which  proceed  some  very  deplorable  consequences 
to  the  horse.  The  overgrown  toe  sets  up  leverage,  the 
direct  effect  of  which,  at  every  step  the  animal  takes,  is 
to  cause  a  separation  of  the  laminae  at  the  region  of  the 
toe.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  a  force  acting  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  this ;  that  force  being  the  combined 
effects  of  weight  and  momentum  pressing  upon  the  toe 
of  the  pedal  bone,  causing  its  displacement  and  a  sepa- 
ration of  the  laminae  in  that  region.  Both  these  forces 
can  be  counteracted  by  keeping  the  foot  to  its  normal 
level,  thereby  removing  the  leverage  from  the  toe,  and 
placing  the  sole  immediately  under  the  pedal  bone  upon 
the  earth,  from  whence  it  will  receive  direct  support, 
and  the  laminae  will  be  kept  in  the  position  nature  as- 
signed them. 

Area  of  Laminated  Structures. 

300.  I  have  made  a  little  calculation  as  to  the  area  of 
the  laminated  structures  which  may  or  may  not  throw 
some  light  upon  the  functions  of  these  structures,  which 
are  very  much  in  dispute  at  the  present  time.  A 
medium-sized  foot  of  the  horse  contains  about  ten  square 
inches  of  double  laminated  structure.  This  double  ar- 
rangement has  two  functions  or  purposes  to  serve ;  one 
is  to  provide  the  means  for  its  own  protection,  and  the 
other  is  to  assist  in  supporting  the  weight  of  the  animal 
while  standing  or  in  motion.  It  is  obvious,  I  think,  that 
any  undue  strain  upon  these  laminae  by  superimposed 
weight  will  either  weaken  or  destroy  the  secreting 
functions.  While  they  lie  in  close  apposition  to  and 
with  each  other,  they  can  only  fulfil  the  functions  for 
which  they  were  intended.  Whatever  causes  tend  even 
to  separate  them  tend  in  that  degree  to  promote  disease 
and  disorganization,  especially  in  the  front  region  of  the 


1 82  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

foot  first,  and  eventually  to  the  whole  foot.  The  horse 
has  no  need  of  any  hoof  beyond  the  termination  of  the 
laminated  structures.  The  line  of  utility  has  to  be 
drawn  somewhere,  and  that  is  where  it  is  drawn. 

Observations  Wise  or  Otherwise. 

301 .  If  it  is  admissible  to  personify  nature  and  speak 
of  her  intentions,  I  should  say  that  when  she  made  the 
horse  she  made  ample  provisions  for  the  protection  of 
his  feet  while  roaming  the  plains.  Where  man's  do- 
minion begins  nature's  ceases  as  far  as  the  wear  and 
care  of  the  hoof  is  concerned.  It  may  be  thought  a 
rather  far-fetched  illustration  to  compare  the  claw  and 
bill  of  a  canary-bird  to  the  foot  of  the  horse ;  but  they 
are  formed  out  of  essentially  the  same  natural  sub- 
stance. The  bird's  bill  and  claws  are  growing  all  the 
time,  and  so  is  the  toe-nail  of  the  horse,  for  that  is  what 
it  is.  He  has  but  one  toe  on  each  foot,  and  his  toe-nail 
is  always  growing  too  long.  When  the  bird's  bill  or  toe- 
nail grows  too  long,  it  must  be  either  worn  off  or  cut  off. 
The  bird  keeps  its  little  bill  in  order  itself  by  removing 
the  overgrowth  pretty  frequently,  for  that  is  what  it 
does  when  we  say  it  is  sharpening  its  bill.  Biddy,  the 
hen,  keeps  her  claws  sharp  by  scratching  for  a  living. 
The  human  finger  and  toe  nails  require  to  have  their 
overgrowth  kept  in  check,  and  the  horse  is  no  exception 
to  the  rule. 

Bootmaker  and  Cobbler. 

302.  The  fact  needs  but  little  explanation  that  the 
horse  loses  by  domestication  an  important  natural  attri- 
bute— that  of  being  able  to  keep  his  own  feet  in  repair. 
Nature  is  his  master-bootmaker;  but  the  horse  is  ex- 
pected to  be  his  own  cobbler,  and  would  be,  if  you  gave 
him  his  liberty  on  the  plains. 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  1 83 

In  domestication  he  is  pretty  well  taken  care  of  in 
all  else  besides  the  feet— there  all  his  troubles  begin. 
Why  ?  Simply  because  the  fact  is  not  apprehended  as 
it  ought  to  be  that  his  toe-nail  is  always  growing,  and 
he  can  neither  cut  it  off  nor  wear  it  off  himself.  Any 
principle  or  rule  for  this  necessary,  nay  all-important 
operation  to  the  horse  seems  to  be  utterly  unknown. 
By  growth  the  foot  changes  its  angle  of  bearing  every 
day.  Perpetual  growth  of  horn  is  a  perpetual  menace 
of  danger  to  the  horse,  and  the  only  thing  to  counteract 
this  is  a  just  appreciation  of  the  horse's  requirements  in 
this  regard  and  the  frequent  and  judicious  use  of  the 
paring-knife.  Why  are  not  elephants,  camels,  dogs, 
and  other  fleshy-footed  animals  subject  to  the  same 
classes  of  disease  as  the  horse  ?  Because  the  horse  has 
the  good  or  bad  fortune  to  have  a  foot  that  doubles  its 
size  in  one  year,  while  the  area  of  the  laminated  struc- 
tures never  increases  one  iota.  This  accounts  for  horses 
coming  from  the  country  into  the  city  and  becoming  so 
easily  foundered  or  weakening  the  laminas  of  the  feet. 
Straining  and  weakening  of  the  laminae  of  the  feet  will 
always  be  in  proportion  to  the  extra  growth  of  hoof  be- 
yond nature's  line  of  demarcation — the  line  which  marks 
the  junction  of  sole  and  wall. 

A  Valuable  Suggestion. 

303.  I  desire  to  make  a  suggestion  which  would  pre- 
vent a  great  deal  of  suffering  to  horses  and  of  losses  to 
horse-owners.  Horses  may  arrive  from  the  country  in 
perfect  condition  as  to  their  feet ;  they  may  be  shod  well 
as  ordinary  shoeing  goes;  and  yet  most  of  them  are  seen 
to  favor  their  feet  all  they  can,  as  they  are  driven  over 
hard  roads  and  harder  pavements.  Why?  Because 
travelling  over  hard  roads  and  city  pavements  is  a  new 
and  anything  but  an   agreeable  sensation  to  them  after 


1 84  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

the  soft  roads  and  the  softer  turf  of  the  country.  On 
the  soft  turf  the  toe  and  heel  sink  into  the  ground  alter- 
nately, and  that  greatly  eases  them  as  they  pass  over 
the  ground.  This  is  the  rolling  motion  that  nature 
gives  them.  It  obviously  lessens  the  chances  of  strain 
and  concussion.  When  they  get  into  the  city,  these 
favorable  conditions  are  all  changed.  A  hard,  unyield- 
ing piece  of  metal  is  nailed  to  the  foot,  and  he  is  driven 
over  hard  city  pavements.  Every  step  he  takes  the 
laminae  receive  a  double  shock  of  concussion,  one  at  the 
heel  and  another  at  the  toe,  as  he  places  his  foot  down 
upon  the  first  and  quits  it  from  the  last.  To  obviate 
every  chance  for  worry  or  disease  to  the  horse,  the  first 
shoes  he  should  get  on  in  the  city  should  be  the  centre- 
bearing  or  rocker  shoe.  With  these  he  would  become 
accustomed  to  the  hard  pavements  and  city  life  gen- 
erally, and  he  can  be  shod  afterward  with  common  shoes 
if  desirable,  with  more  safety  to  himself  and  more  satis- 
faction to  his  owner. 

Other  Causes  of  Laminitis. 

304.  Various  are  the  secondary  causes  of  laminitis ; 
yet  all  more  or  less  dependent  upon  one  primary  cause. 
We  have  been  considering  laminitis  as  produced  by  an 
overgrown  toe — this  causes  a  loss  of  balance  in  the 
antero-posterior  direction  of  the  foot ;  laminitis  can  also 
be  produced  by  a  loss  of  lateral  balance.  The  lack  of 
lateral  balance  will  produce  a  foot  so  deformed  that  in- 
stead of  its  being  planted  flat  and  level  upon  the  ground, 
as  it  should  be,  it  is  planted  on  a  bevel  on  account  of  its 
being  unduly  high  on  some  part  of  its  circumference 
other  than  the  toe. 

A  little  common  horse-sense  should  teach  any  one 
that  when  a  horse  points  his  foot  it  is  invariably  pointed 
toward  the  spot  from  which  the  uneasiness  proceeds. 


THE   FOOT»OF   THE    HORSE.  1 85 

By  this  sign  or  symptom  the  seat  of  paki  can  be  located 
■unerringly  in  the  lamince  right  over  the  elevated  portion 
of  the  foot.  It  is  no  doubt  due  to  this  circumstance  that 
horses  show  soreness  very  often  after  a  drive  when  no 
swelling  is  to  be  seen  in  the  limbs,  and  which  usually 
passes  away  after  soaking  the  foot  or  after  a  night's  rest. 
Furthermore  the  laminae  can  become  inflamed  by  any 
form  of  foot  which  lessens  their  power  to  carry  the 
weight  which  is  necessarily  imposed  upon  them.  These 
laminated  structures  are  the  fulcra  or  props  upon  which 
the  great  lever,  the  limb,  rests  in  the  last  effort  made 
when  the  foot  leaves  the  ground,  and  what  is  called  con- 
cussion is  no  doubt  a  spraining  of  the  laminae  in  propor- 
tion to  the  weight  they  carry,  augmented  by  the  momen- 
tum of  speed. 

Bony  and  Fleshy  Enlargements, 

305.  Together  with  undue  strains  and  sprains  and 
compressions  of  bones,  are  all  to  be  attributed  to  the 
different  abnormal  growths  of  the  foot,  and  it  must  be 
obvious  the  sprains  of  the  one  class  of  tissues  and  the 
compressions  of  the  other  must  be  communicated  through 
these  media,  the  laminae  which  form  the  connecting  link 
between  the  hard  and  the  soft  tissues.  Certain  modes 
of  shoeing  must  not  be  overlooked  as  productive  of  in- 
flamed laminae.  For  instance,  a  shoe  fitted  full  at  the 
toe  and  long  at  the  heel  unduly  strains  and  lessens  the 
power  of  the  laminae.  Concussion  or  undue  straining  of 
the  laminae  is  also  produced  by  undue  length  of  the  toe 
as  well  as  undue  length  of  the  heel.  A  long  and  wide 
toe  clip  to  secure  large  shoes  in  their  place  is  additional 
exciting  cause,  especially  when  hammered  down  tight 
upon  the  toe.  The  constant  pressure  of  the  toe  clip  aug- 
ments the  other  causes  which  centre  at  the  toe,  and  would 
of  itself  prepare  the  foot  for  greater  embarrassments. 


1 86  THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

Some  other  predisposing  causes  must  also  be  noticed. 
Too  much  or  too  little  sole-bearing,  and  burning  the 
sole,  will  cause  fever  in  the  laminae. 

Uneven  calks  and  snowballing  will  also  cause  in- 
flamed laminae.  Inflammation  of  the  whole  foot  may 
result  from  the  point  of  the  frog  being  left  to  grow  so 
high  as  to  come  into  contact  with  hard  roads. 

The  point  of  the  frog  often  becomes  so  hard  and  dry 
from  constant  pressure  as  to  inflame  the  soft  tissues 
lying  between  the  navicular  bone  and  the  frog.  Coming 
between  the  weight  above  and  the  hard  frog  below,  they 
are  crushed  as  if  they  were  between  the  two  jaws  of  a 
vise.  The  characteristic  of  a  healthy  frog  is  its  elastic- 
ity. It  is  often  observed  by  the  shoeing  smith  that  a 
horse  will  not  stand  upon  the  floor  barefooted  until  the 
point  of  bearing,  in  that  case  the  point  of  the  frog,  is 
removed.     When  that  is  done  he  can  stand  with  ease. 


The  Reason  Why 

506. 

nate  in  the  laminae  of  the  feet  is  that  the  foot  is  confined 
within  a  comparatively  unyielding  grasp  of  horny  sub- 
stance, and  injuries  which  would  scarcely  be  noticed  on 
other  points  of  the  system  often  become  destructive  to 
the  animal  when  happening  within  the  foot.  Swelling, 
the  result  of  inflammation  in  other  parts,  where  it  is 
unconfined  gives  relief  to  pain  ;  but  when  the  swelling 
is  confined  as  it  must  be  within  the  hoof,  the  pressure, 
and  the  pain  are  augmented  in  manifold  degrees.  Need 
I  remind  you  that  even  the  prick  of  a  nail  has  caused 
the  loss  of  many  valuable  animals  from  this  very  cause? 
Many  degrees  of  inflammation  are  also  observable  within 
the  foot.  Sometimes  it  passes  away;  and  there  is  no 
tissue  or  structure  within  the  foot  that  is  not  liable  to  its 
attacks.       The    sensitive  and  insensitive  tissues  of  the 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  187 

sole,  as  well  as  those  of  the  wall,  sometimes  receive  the 
brunt  of  the  attack,  the  secretions  are  suspended,  and 
pumice  of  foot  is  the  result  when  it  does  not  actually 
destroy  the  animal.  Chronic  inflammation  in  the  laminal 
tissues  of  the  wall  often  has  its  sequel  in  a  partially  dis- 
organized condition  termed  seedy  toe.  Disconnection 
has  destroyed  secretion  ;  and  disconnection  can  be  traced 
to  cover  an  area  of  four  or  five  square  inches,  nearly 
one-half  of  the  whole  foot.  Extreme  cases  of  pumice 
foot  and  of  seedy  toe  are  considered  incurable ;  and  yet 
many  cases  deemed  incurable  can  be  arrested  and 
ameliorated  very  much  by  the  centre-bearing  shoe. 


Symptoms  of  Acute  Laminitis. 

307.  The  horse  has  an  agonized  expression  of  coun- 
tenance ;  while  standing  on  his  feet  he  trembles  with 
pain;  compel  him  to  move  backward  and  his  feet  are 
not  lifted  off  the  floor,  but  dragged  backward  without 
lifting;  compel  him  to  move  forward,  and  his  step  is 
irregular  and  made  with  pain  and  hard  breathing ;  his 
feet  are  kept  in  advance  of  his  chest,  so  as  to  place  the 
bearing  upon  his  heels  and  to  keep  it  there,  as  the 
region  of  pain  is  the  front  part  of  his  feet.  His  hind 
limbs  are  called  upon  to  aid  his  forward  ones  to  their 
utmost  ability,  and  all  advances  are  made  by  the  hind 
feet  being  kept  forward  under  the  body. 

The  Remedy. 

308.  All  diseases  of  the  laminae  having  a  mechanical 
origin,  the  best  remedy  yet  found  is  one  purely  mechan- 
ical. Need  I  say  that  the  centre-bearing  shoe  is  the 
remedy  for  this  as  for  all  other  diseases  of  the  foot 
which  have  a  mechanical  origin  ?  In  every  stage  of  this 
disease  from  the  first  to  the  last  degree  of  inflammation,. 


1 88  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

except  the  horse  is  in  an  actually  dying  condition,  this 
shoe  will  give  instant  relief  from  pain.  In  many  cases 
where  the  animal  would  not  or  could  not  rise,  these 
shoes  have  been  applied  to  the  feet,  and  when  he  has 
been  assisted  to  rise  he  has  stood  and  walked  easily  and 
comfortably.  Detailed  directions  for  applying  the  shoes 
have  been  given  so  often  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  re- 
peat them  here.  "  The  half  hath  not  been  told"  of  what 
I  could  say  on  this  one  particular  topic. 

Centre-Bearing  Philosophy. 

309.  I  must  find  room  to  expatiate  a  little  on  what 
I  consider  the  philosophy  of  the  centre-bearing  shoe. 
Each  time  I  refer  to  it,  it  seems  as  if  some  latent  merit 
suggested  itself  from  a  new  point  of  view.  Its  imme- 
diate effects  are  so  remarkable  upon  the  horse's  foot 
and  limb  that  even  with  myself  it  becomes  a  source  of 
wonder  and  surprise  with  every  fresh  victory  it  achieves. 
A  centre-bearing  shoe  has  two  distinctly  beneficial 
effects  upon  a  laminitic  foot:  In  the  first  place,  the 
protection  it  affords  the  sole  against  contact  with  the 
ground  by  covering  the  whole  of  the  under  surface  of 
the  foot.  In  the  second  place  it  has  the  peculiar  effect 
of  balancing  the  foot  in  such  a  way  that  all  the 
tendons  and  ligaments  and  laminated  structure,  even 
the  very  bones  themselves,  seem  to  fall  into  their 
proper  places,  and  to  be  relieved  of  all  strain  and 
effort  in  the  movements  of  placing  the  legs  one  in 
advance  of  the  other.  It  is  like  supplying  the  limb 
with  an  extra  joint,  and  that  joint  of  such  a  char- 
acter that  it  admits  of  motion  in  every  direction.  The 
whorl-bone  joint,  as  some  call  it,  is  a  ball-and-socket  ar- 
rangement that  admits  of  describing  some  portion  of  a 
circle,  but  the  ball  without  the  socket  admits  of  describ- 
ing a  full  circle!     Unlimited  motion  in  every  direction! 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  1 89 

I  consider  it  a  supplementary  joint.  The  one  point  of 
bearing  is  where  the  long  and  the  short  axes  intersect 
each  other.  This  enables  the  animal  to  balance  himself 
fore  and  aft,  and  from  side  to  side,  with  equal  facility, 
and  so  evenly  that  if  every  joint  in  the  limb,  any  one 
or  all  of  them,  have  suffered  by  being  out  of  the  line 
of  bearing,  they  appear  to  fall  into  line  at  once  and 
smooth  rotation  is  the  result. 

Sideway  Movements. 

310.  Whether  the  horse  wishes  to  move  forward  or 
backward,  or  turn  from  right  to  left,  or  from  left  to 
right,  the  movement  does  not  incommode  him  in  the 
least;  in  fact  he  can  make  sideway  movements  much 
easier  than  he  could  in  sound  health  without  the  ball 
shoe.  These  sideway  movements  try  a  crippled  horse 
very  severely  with  flat  shoes  on  his  feet  covering  an 
area  of  twenty  square  inches  of  bearing  surface ;  since 
the  first  three  joints  of  the  leg  from  the  bottom  admit 
only  of  fore-and-aft  motion,  and  the  knee  joint  only 
admits  of  very  limited  lateral  motion ;  so  that  the  horse 
when  he  finds  himself  able  to  swing  round  a  circle  or 
take  a  long  stride  must  indeed  experience  an  agreeable 
surprise. 

Broad's  Laminitis  Shoe. 

311.  A  Mr.  Broad,  a  veterinary  surgeon  of  Bath, 
England,  has  constructed  a  shoe  which  he  calls  Broad's 
laminitis  shoe.  I  have  examined  a  drawing  and  read  a 
description  of  this  shoe  in  Professor  Williams'  work  on 
veterinary  surgery.  Wishing  to  judge  it  by  its  effects, 
I  read  Mr.  Broad's  own  description  of  it.  The  ap- 
plication of  the  shoe  must  be  made  within  three  days 
after  the  attack,  and  must  be  accompanied  by  poultices 
and  soakings  and  whippings  every  day,  to  compel  exercise 


I90  THE  FOOT  OF  THE  HORSE. 

for  several  weeks,  and  after  that  time  the  horse,  if  he  is 
alive,  may  be  turned  out  to  grass  for  twelve  months, 
and  the  result  even  then  is  not  always  of  the  most  en- 
couraging character.  Although  some  of  Mr.  Broad's 
friends  have  written  approvingly  of  his  shoe,  his  shoe 
has  encountered  much  hostile  criticism  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  veterinary  profession.  Mr.  Broad  is  entitled 
to  some  credit  for  the  spirit  of  progress  he  has  evinced 
in  regard  to  laminitis.  Because  a  horse  with  laminitis 
goes  upon  his  heels  to  save  his  toes,  Mr.  Broad  puts  on 
a  shoe  with  a  very  thick,  heavy  toe  and  a  very  thin  heel, 
under  the  idea  that  the  weight  of  the  shoe  prevented 
jarring  to  the  foot,  and  the  very  thin  heels  supplemented 
the  horse's  wish  to  get  as  much  as  possible  over  on  his 
heels.  This  is  all  I  can  discover  about  the  shoe  and  its 
effects  upon  the  laminitic  foot.  I  hope  Mr.  Broad  will 
read  this  book.  He  will  find  that  it  does  not  matter 
whether  the  horse  has  been  attacked  for  three  days  or 
three  weeks ;  if  the  horse  is  able  to  stand  upon  his  feet 
to  have  the  shoes  attached  to  them,  let  him  put  on  a 
pair  of  centre-bearing  shoes  and  he  will  find  more  ben- 
efit to  the  horse  in  one  hour  than  in  twelve  months'  use 
of  his  shoe ;  and  all  the  soakings,  poulticings,  and  whip- 
pings and  turning  to  grass  for  six  or  twelve  months  dis- 
pensed with — nay,  more,  in  from  three  to  six  days  the 
horse  can  be  doing  his  usual  work  if  the  centre-bearing 
shoe  is  kept  upon  him  all  the  time. 

Seedy  Toe. 

312.  Sometimes  separation  of  the  lamina?  takes  place 
between  the  internal  surface  of  the  hoof  and  the  front 
part  of  the  pedal  bone ;  a  chronic  case  of  this  nature  has 
acquired  the  name  of  seedy  toe.  The  laminated  struc- 
tures, wherever  they  have  become  disunited,  appear  to 
have  become  dried  up  and  powdery,   which   doubtless 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  191 

suggested  the  term  seedy  toe,  but  for  which  dry-rot  is 
just  as  appropriate.  It  is  deemed  incurable  by  veteri- 
nary surgeons,  but  it  really  is  no  more  incurable  than  a 
quarter-crack  or  a  toe-fissure.  Give  nature  a  chance, 
remove  all  mechanical  obstacles  to  her  work  of  healing, 
that  is  all  the  assistance  she  needs  in  most  cases — and 
particularly  in  this  case.  Put  genial  pressure  on  the 
sole,  and  get  the  pedal  bone  back  to  its  place  and  keep 
it  there  by  suitable  measures  so  that  the  work  of  secre- 
tion may  go  on  without  friction  or  disturbance  of  any 
kind.  It  takes  a  year  to  grow  four  inches  of  wall,  but 
with  the  shoeing  I  recommend  the  horse  can  do  his 
work  all  the  time  instead  of  being  turned  out  to  grass 
for  that  period. 

Shoeing  for  Seedy  Toe. 

313.  First  pare  down  to  the  white  line  and  remove 
all  dead  matter  from  the  interspace  between  the  wall  and 
the  pedal  bone.  Have  a  half-ball  shoe  fitted  and  ready 
for  nailing  on  when  everything  else  is  done.  Let  there 
be  plenty  of  nail-holes  in  the  shoe  from  half  an  inch 
to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  apart,  and  slanted  to  suit 
the  wall  so  that  the  nails  will  get  a  good  grip.  Have 
ready  sufficient  gutta-percha  to  fill  up  the  space  between 
the  plate  of  iron  and  the  sole.  Make  a  mould  of  the 
space  by  softening  the  gutta-percha  in  hot  water  and 
pressing  it  between  the  shoe  and  the  sole  until  it  is  a 
perfect  mould  of  the  space.  Then  remove  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  from  the  lower  edge  of  the  wall  all  round  the 
foot,  so  that  the  whole  sole  may  get  direct  pressure.  Now 
put  your  mould  in  place  and  nail  on  your  shoe,  drawing 
on  the  sole  with  care  and  judgment  evenly  all  round,  so 
that  the  whole  weight  should  be  borne  upon  the  sole  as 
nicely  balanced  as  possible.  Nail  the  shoe  well  back  at 
the  heels  and  forward  at  the  toe,  with  the  view  of  mak- 


192  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

ing  a  solid  block  of  the  foot  for  the  time  being.  If  this 
operation  has  been  done  properly,  in  one  month  you 
will  find  one-third  of  an  inch  of  new  horn  grown  down 
from  the  coronary  band.  The  last  two  cases  I  have 
described  were  two  of  the  very  worst  cases  of  the  results 
of  inflammation  in  the  feet  that  I  have  ever  met  with 
where  the  hoofs  had  not  been  cast  off.  What  deduction 
can  be  drawn  from  these  cases?  Fairly,  I  think,  that  if 
horses  so  diseased  as  these  could  be  snatched  from  the 
jaws  of  death  in  one  case,  and  from  comparative  useless- 
ness  in  the  other,  how  easy  it  must  be  to  cure  or  palliate 
the  trouble  in  horses  less  severely  affected  by  the  same 
disease !  I  deem  it  a  certainty  that  fully  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  horses  that  perish  yearly  from  this  cause  alone 
could  be  saved  for  many  useful  purposes  and  a  very 
large  percentage  absolutely  cured  if  treated  before  the 
pedal  bone  has  dropped  through  the  sole ;  and  even 
these  could  be  made  to  do  slow  work  nearly  as  well  as 
when  sound. 

Pumice  Foot. 

314.  One  of  the  worst  cases  of  pumice  foot  I  ever 
saw  was  treated  by  me  several  years  ago.  The  centre 
of  the  foot  bulged  three-quarters  of  an  inch  below  the 
level  of  the  wall.  A  high  rocker  shoe  set  him  to  work 
immediately ;  he  went  as  well  as  ever  over  the  pave- 
ments, and  is  now  in  prime  condition. 

It  may  be  well  to  remember  that  the  soreness  re- 
maining after  an  attack  of  laminitis  and  partial  recovery 
is  limited  to  the  laminae  which  attach  the  pedal  bone  to 
the  wall,  and  that  the  action  and  reaction  caused  by  the 
heel  and  toe  bearing  of  the  common  shoe  increases  the 
soreness  and  lameness  in  proportion  to  the  hardness  of 
the  roads  upon  which  the  horse  has  to  travel.  The 
proof  of  this  is  that  a  horse  so  affected  travels  much  better 
on  soft  or  sandy  roads  for  the  reason  that  action  and  re- 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  1 93 

action  is  less  felt  on  surfaces  that  yield  to  the  pressure 
of  the  heel  and  toe.  After  an  attack  of  laminitis  the 
hoof,  as  a  rule,  grows  faster  and  higher  at  the  heels 
than  at  the  toe,  and  takes  the  form  represented  at  Cut  2. 
In  such  cases  the  heels  will  have  to  be  pared  more  than 
the  toe. 

A  Comparison. 

315.  The  different  effects  of  the  centre-bearing  and 
the  common  shoe  are  worth  a  few  moments'  considera- 
tion. With  a  common  shoe  the  soreness  decreases  as 
the  animal  passes  from  hard  roads  to  soft;  but  with  the 
centre-bearing  shoe  the  soreness  diminishes  rapidly  upon 
the  hardest  of  roads ;  the  horse  never  looks  for  a  soft 
spot  to  walk  upon,  proving  clearly,  I  think,  that  the 
action  and  reaction  of  the  common  shoe  is  the  cause  of 
the  permanent  disability  of  laminitic  cases  after  they 
have  partially  recovered,  and  keeps  the  foot  weak  and 
liable  at  any  time  to  another  attack. 

The  Most  Important  Consideration. 

316.  After  an  attack  of  laminitis  the  due  balance  of 
the  foot  is  the  most  important  consideration,  as  much  for 
its  cure  or  amelioration  as  for  its  future  prevention. 
All  writers  note  the  susceptibility  of  the  horse  to  this 
disease  after  one  attack.  I  think  I  have  shown  in  the 
preceding  paragraph  why  this  is  so,  but  the  following 
observations  may  not  be  out  of  place. 

Besides  the  twofold  part  the  laminated  structures 
have  to  play  in  the  economy  of  the  foot  as  secreting  and 
connecting  media,  they  are  the  first  to  receive  impres- 
sions favorable  or  otherwise  from  the  external  world, 
and  they  are  the  last  to  receive  directions,  as  it  were, 
from  headquarters — the  brain.  They  have  need  to  be 
constantly  on  the  qui  vive  against  dangers,  for  there  is 
no  structure   of    the   foot  so  exposed  to  danger  as  are 


194  THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

these  laminated  structures.  They  bear  the  brunt  of  the 
first  hostile  attack  from  external  sources,  and  they  have 
no  more  deadly  enemy,  metaphorically  speaking,  than 
an  overgrown  hoof,  which  begins  by  destroying  the  nat- 
ural balance,  which  throws  the  whole  machinery  of  the 
foot  and  leg  into  confusion,  for  the  reason  that  the 
laminae — like  the  king-pin  of  a  machine — form  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  moving  and  balancing  forces 
of  the  limb,  and  therefore  those  of  the  whole  body. 
Verily  the  foot  is  the  essential  part  of  the  horse,  and 
verily,  verily  the  laminae  are  the  essential  part  of  the 
foot.  What  horse  or  house  can  stand  without  founda- 
tions? 

The  Happy  Medium. 

317.  I  think  it  has  been  sufficiently  demonstrated 
that  if  you  leave  the  heels  too  high,  he  will  strain  the 
laminae  at  the  heels,  and  if  you  leave  the  toes  too  high 
he  will  strain  the  laminae  at  the  toes,  and  either  the  one 
condition  or  the  other  will  equally  impede  his  progres- 
sion in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  the  disturbance. 
The  happy  medium  in  this  case  is  an  even  balance  and  a 
justly  distributed  weight ;  in  other  words,  a  due  propor- 
tion of  the  superficies  of  united  laminae  to  other  portions 
of  the  hoof.  To  prevent  slipping  the  half-ball  four- 
calk  shoe,  Cut  44,  will  be  found  the  best  substitute  for 
the  centre-bearer. 

Concluding  Observations. 

318.  In  concluding  this  article  on  laminitis,  I  wish  to 
affirm  my  absolute  conviction  that  a  centre-bearing  shoe 
is  preferable  to  any  other  kind  or  modification  of  shoe 
for  all  cases  of  lameness,  arising  from  whatsoever  cause. 
Not  for  one  form  of  lameness  only,  but  for  all  forms. 
It  supplies  the  one  thing  needful  to  improvement  or 
recovery  in  all  cases  of  lameness — quietude  and  repose 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  1 95 

of  the  inflamed  tissues,  without  which  there  can  be  no 
reasonable  expectation  of  the  patient's  recovering. 

After  the  horse's  recovery,  the  centre-bar,  the  rocker, 
and  the  half -ball  four-calk  are  about  equally  good,  ex- 
cepting in  the  winter,  when  any  four-calk  shoe  will  be 
preferable  to  the  rocker. 

I  regret  to  say  the  centre-bearing  shoe  or  any  modi- 
fication of  it  has  a  disadvantage  in  deep  soft  ground  or 
deep  snows;  under  such  circumstances  it  is  no  better 
than  any  other  form  of  shoe.  But  for  this  the  cen- 
tre-bearing shoe  and  its  modifications  would  be  the 
universal  shoe.  Under  all  other  circumstances  it  is 
susceptible  of  universal  application  to  sound  horses  to 
keep  them  sound,  and  for  lame  horses  to  make  them 
sound.  Many  feet  after  a  severe  attack  of  laminitis  get 
so  deformed  and  shrivelled  up  that  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  paring  or  making  them  level  enough  for  the 
affixing  of  any  other  kind  or  form  of  shoe  than  the  cen- 
tre-bearing shoe. 

Contraction. 

General  Observations. 

319.  This  disease  presents  itself  in  so  many  different 
forms  that  to  treat  of  every  form  separately  would  oc- 
cupy more  space  than  I  can  devote  to  the  entire  book. 
I  shall,  therefore,  confine  myself  to  four  leading  forms 
or  types  of  this  disease. 

Hoof-bound,  the  common  but  expressive  name  for  con- 
traction, has  been  observed  as  an  abnormal  condition  of 
horses'  feet  for  centuries  and  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  the  best  veterinary  physicians  of  all  times.  The  value 
and  importance  of  the  horse  in  the  wars  of  ancient 
Greece  about  twenty-three  hundred  years  ago  must  have 
been  well  appreciated,  when  a  great  general  of  the  Grecian 
army,  Xenophon,  a  profound  historian  and  writer  on  the 


196  THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE. 

most  momentous  questions  and  problems  of  human  ex- 
istence, should  feel  constrained  to  write  a  treatise  upon 
the  foot  of  the  horse.  Many  measures  have  been  devised 
to  rectify  its  abnormal  conditions,  but  nothing  has  had 
a  permanent  effect  but  the  conditions  which  were  sought 
to  be  rectified.  Like  the  poor  they  have  been  with  us 
always.  Until  the  true  mechanical  principles  governing 
the  movements  of  the  foot  were  discovered,  it  would  have 
been  impossible  to  formulate  uniform  and  certain  rules 
which  could  be  applied  to  that  organ  either  in  health  or 
disease.  All  that  has  ever  been  known  through  the 
ages  has  been  matters  of  individual  experience.  Not 
until  now  has  there  been  any  well-proved  basic  facts 
upon  which  a  uniform  and  universal  system  of  theory 
could  be  based,  which  there  might  be  if  all  horses'  feet 
are  constructed  alike. 

The  Effects  of  Contraction 

320.  Are  visible  mostly  in  the  fore  feet.  Its  first 
effect  is  to  diminish  the  width  of  the  foot,  and  as  it 
becomes  narrower  it  increases  the  length.  This  change 
in  width  and  length  is  in  various  degrees  and  forms, 
and  the  more  marked  the  change  the  more  injurious 
will  be  the  results. 

The  Causes  of  Contraction 

321.  Are  various;  sometimes  it  results  from  a  dis- 
eased or  disabled  limb,  whatever  the  cause  of  that  dis- 
ablement may  have  been.  Whatever  produces  lameness 
for  any  length  of  time,  such  as  wounds,  kicks,  or  blows, 
and  keeps  the  limb  out  of  use,  is  sufficient  to  produce 
atrophy  or  wasting  of  the  tissues  composing  the  limb. 
The  muscles  show  the  first  symptom  of  atrophy.  Exer- 
cise is  necessary  to  keep  these  and  all  the  other  tissues 
of  the  limb  from  shrinking  in  size,  and  for  maintaining 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  1 97 

them  in  a  normally  healthy  condition.  As  a  rule,  when 
there  is  lameness  there  is  fever  in  the  feet,  and  contin- 
ued fever  in  the  tissues  of  the  foot  will  cause  a  wasting 
away  of  those  tissues,  as  much  as  and  perhaps  more 
than  those  upon  the  outside  of  the  foot.  The  processes 
of  secretion  of  the  various  hoof  structures  being  weak- 
ened and  checked  by  croivding,  the  hoof  itself  becomes 
shrunken  to  the  size  of  the  shrunken  tissues  within  the 
hoof.  Whatever  disease  causes  a  prolonged  state  of 
inaction  will  thus  cause  a  diminution  in  the  size  of  the 
foot. 

Favoring  the  Feet. 

322.  The  hoof  of  a  lame  foot,  from  being  so  con- 
stantly favored,  always  grows  more  vertically  during 
disease  than  when  going  sound  and  carrying  the  usual 
weight. 

Work  and  extra  weight  keep  the  hoof  expanded  in 
that  proportion,  so  that  the  variation  in  size  between  a 
foot  carrying  weight  and  a  foot  in  disuse  is  not  always 
due  to  the  latter  circumstance,  for  a  foot  may  and  does 
under  extra  weight  expand  faster  than  the  latter  con- 
tracts under  less  weight  and  thus  increase  the  difference 
in  size. 

The  change  in  horses'  feet,  then,  the  effect  of  dis- 
turbance to  their  natural  development  affects  the  size  of 
the  feet  rather  than  the  form  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  circum- 
ference of  the  foot  is  not  necessarily  made  oblong,  and 
the  frog  also,  though  becoming  smaller  in  size,  may  re- 
tain its  normal  form. 

Narrow  Feet  Increase  Leverage. 

323.  Hoof -bound,  the  effect  of  disease,  is  very  fre- 
quently only  a  simple  diminution  in  size  of  feet,  with- 
out lameness  or  other  serious  result,  but  when  the 
lateral  diameter  of  the  hoof   has   been   diminished  the 


190  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

results  must  be  more  or  less  serious,  as  the  foot  then 
becomes  longer  and  increases  the  leverage  at  the  toe. 
Contraction  appears  under  different  forms,  and  each 
form  produces  ailments  and  morbid  conditions  peculiar 
to  that  form.  In  some  cases  the  ailment  is  limited  to 
one  side  of  the  foot  only,  and  appears  most  frequently 
upon  the  inside  of  the  foot,  as  seen  at  Cut  15,  a.  At 
other  times  the  foot  is  oblong  like  Cut  16,  a.  Again  it 
appears  contracted  at  both  heels  as  in  Cut  17,  while  Cut 
18  represents  the  contraction  of  one  heel  only. 

Type  of  Contraction  No.  1. 

324.  It  ought  to  be  very  evident  indeed  that  a  horse 
cannot  travel  with  ease  with  a  foot  wider  on  one  side 
than  the  other,  which  implies  lack  of  lateral  balance ; 
for  if  this  balance  is  lost  the  narrowest  part  will  sink  into 
soft  ground  first  and  give  the  ankle  joint  a  twist  at  every 
step.  When  the  foot  contracts  upon  one  side  only,  the 
angle  of  the  contracted  wall  becomes  more  vertical  at 
first  than  that  of  the  opposite  wall,  and  so  unbalances 
the  foot  by  the  elevation  of  the  pedal  bone,  of  course  on 
the  same  side  as  the  wall  which  is  the  most  vertical, 
and  lameness  is  the  necessary  result.  When  this  takes 
place  on  the  inside  of  the  foot,  it  gives  rise  to  many  more 
forms  of  lameness  than  when  it  occurs  on  the  outside 
half  of  the  foot.  The  reason  for  this  has  been  fully  ex- 
plained, and  briefly  stated  here  is  that  the  horse  cannot 
point  inwardly  for  relief  so  easily  as  he  can  outwardly. 
It  must  be  a  matter  of  importance  to  understand  well 
the  different  effects  caused  by  contraction,  when  diseases 
and  morbid  conditions  numbering  a  quarter  of  a  hundred 
can  be  traced  to  one  form  or  type  of  contraction — that 
one  being  associated  with  an  undue  elevation  of  the  in- 
side half  of  the  foot.  Briefly  stated,  contraction  from 
heel  to  toe,  as  in  Cut  1 5,  a,  would  elevate  the  same  side  of 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  1 99, 

the  pedal  bone,  by  the  wall  of  the  foot  becoming  more 
vertical.  This  is  the  first  type  or  form  of  contraction. 
The  second  is  that  of  a  partial  contraction  of  one  side,  as 
at  Cut  18. 

Type  of  Contraction  No.  2. 

325.  This  form  of  contraction  only  affects  one-fourth 
of  the  foot's  circumference.  From  behind  the  central 
transverse  line  of  the  hoof  just  opposite  the  wing  of  the 
pedal  bone,  the  hoof  commences  to  contract  and  falls 
inward  beyond  the  vertical  line;  thus,  instead  of  elevat- 
ing the  pedal  bone  on  one  side,  it  causes  a  sinking  down 
of  the  pedal  bone  at  that  very  point.  The  different  ef- 
fects of  these  two  forms  of  contraction  are  so  remarkable 
that  I  feel  that  I  cannot  do  justice  to  the  subject  or  my- 
self, if  I  do  not  give  them  a  little  further  consideration. 

We  have  already  stated  that  contraction  from  heel 
to  toe,  as  seen  at  Cut  15,  a,  elevates  by  its  vertical  form 
the  pedal  bone  on  the  same  side.  You  may  ask  how  it 
is  that  contraction  causes  elevation  in  one  case  and  de- 
pression in  another.  It  is  this  way :  when  one  heel 
only  contracts  at  the  quarter,  and  not  beyond  it,  it  al- 
ways loses  its  vertical  angle  for  an  angle  more  or  less 
acute  inward.  The  support  of  either  side  of  the  hoof  is 
therefore  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  outer  or  inner 
angle  or  direction  taken  by  the  wall  at  the  quarter.  An 
outward  or  an  inward  direction  taken  by  the  heels  has 
the  same  effect  as  the  process  of  lowering  the  heels,, 
while  the  vertical  wall,  all  else  being  equal,  will  elevate 
that  side  of  the  foot. 

Overweighing. 

326.  When  the  heel  or  quarter  fails  to  support  its 
due  share  of  weight,  that  which  it  fails  to  carry  has  to 
be  carried  by  the  front  half  of  the  same  side,  that  is, 


20O  THE  FOOT  OF  THE  HORSE. 

from  the  central  transverse  line  of  the  foot  to  the  toe, 
which  thus  becomes  overweighted,  and  this  has  a  crush- 
ing or  flattening  effect  upon  the  same  side  of  the  pedal 
bone,  the  tendency  being  always  to  crush  it  to  a  level 
with  the  crushed  wall  at  the  quarter. 

Shoeing  for  Two  Forms  of  Contraction. 

Both  these  two  different  effects  of  contraction — one 
being  of  the  whole  side  of  the  foot,  and  the  other  being 
of  one-quarter  only — can  be  both  cured  and  prevented 
by  the  same  method  of  treatment,  and  until  this  is  ac- 
complished a  modified  shoe  should  be  worn  which 
would  both  prevent  and  cure  the  lameness. 

A  shoe  for  a  foot  resembling  Cut  1 5, a,  should  be  made 
thinner  inside,  if  the  hoof  cannot  be  lowered  enough 
without  it,  and,  vice  versa,  thick  inside  for  the  opposite 
condition  resembling  Cut  18.  This  form  of  the  foot 
being  low  on  the  inside  is  the  same  as  being  high  on 
the  outside,  and  is  the  cause  of  all  the  diseases  attributed 
to  high  on  the  outside  half  or  portion  of  the  foot. 

Mechanical  Expansion. 

327.  Besides  producing  the  eight  diseases  referred 
to,  the  heel  by  lapping  and  pressing  against  the  frog 
prevents  its  due  growth  and  development,  and  not  only 
hinders  the  secreting  processes  but  is  also  the  cause  of 
their  vitiation,  and  we  have  as  a  result  the  disease  com- 
monly called  thrush.  That  portion  of  the  frog  which 
lies  under  the  contracted  quarter  dwindles  away  or 
perishes  altogether  first,  proving  that  contraction  is  the 
proximate  cause  of  thrush.  It  is  also  proved  by  the  fact 
that  mechanical  expansion  of  the  contracted  quarter 
causes  a  rapid  cure  of  the  thrush  with  no  other  applica- 
tion besides  water;  and  a  renewal  of  healthy  frog  tissue 
speedily   follows.     Quarter   crack   is   of  very  frequent 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  201 

occurrence  in  feet  of  this  character,  as  also  are  the  mor- 
bid conditions  termed  corn  and  ossified  lateral  cartilages. 
If  only  one  foot  is  affected  the  horse  will  point  that  one 
foot  in  the  direction  of  the  highest  side,  and  not  only 
that  but  to  the  highest  point  on  that  side.  The  hoof  of  a 
contracted  foot  is  not  only  deformed,  and  the  softer  tis- 
sues within  it  atrophied,  but  the  very  bone  itself  becomes 
atrophied  and  deformed.  In  this  form  of  contraction  one 
of  the  wings  of  the  pedal  bone  is  often  seen  to  be  smaller 
than  the  other,  and  there  can  be  no  mistake  as  to  its 
cause,  since  it  is  always  found  on  the  contracted  side. 

Dexter's  Pedal  Bone. 

328.  When  Dexter  passed  into  the  hands  of  Mr. 
Robert  Bonner  he  was  lame  from  a  contracted  foot.  The 
outside  quarter  of  the  off  fore  foot  was  the  location  of 
the  cause  of  his  lameness.  Mr.  Bonner  had  that  quarter 
expanded  mechanically  and  the  lameness  disappeared 
immediately.  It  had  always  been  suspected,  but  not 
known  positively  until  after  the  decease  of  Dexter,  that 
the  wing  of  the  coffin  had  been  affected  by  the  contracted 
quarter  (see  Cut  31).  This  cut,  by  Mr.  Bonner's  per- 
mission, was  outlined  from  Dexter 's  pedal  bone,  and  one 
may  not  only  learn  from  it  howr  bones  can  become 
affected  by  the  contraction  of  a  hoof,  but  it  may  be  in- 
teresting to  some  that  it  represents  the  pedal  bone  of 
the  first  horse  who  trotted  one  mile  in  2  :  17%. 

Cut  32  is  a  profile  drawing  of  the  same  bone  and  is 
the  exact  size  of  the  original. 

Type  of  Contraction  No.  3. 

329.  The  third  type  of  the  deformity  of  the  foot 
caused  by  contraction  is  the  oblong  form,  where  the 
lateral  diameter  becomes  transformed  into  length,  as 
seen  in  Cut  16,  a. 


202  THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE. 

Feet  when  so  contracted  resemble  those  of  the 
mule.  Both  sides  of  the  foot  become  vertical  and  com- 
press the  laminated  structures,  and  the  pedal  bone  as: 
well.  Continued  lateral  pressure  alters  the  shape  of  the 
pedal  bone,  transforming  its  width  into  length,  corre- 
sponding to  the  shape  of  the  outer  wall.  The  lameness- 
is  usually  proportionate  to  the  change  in  the  shape  of 
the  hoof,  for  when  the  foot  becomes  narrower  by  com- 
pression, the  navicular  bone  is  crowded  too  much  for 
natural  action  and  the  pedal  articulation  becomes  ob- 
structed, and  permanent  obstructions  are  often  the  re- 
sult. Another  distinct  effect  produced  by  this  form  of 
contraction  is  that  of  straining  the  back  tendons,  caused 
by  the  extra  length  of  the  foot  which  the  change  from 
breadth  to  length  has  produced. 

Thus  we  may  have  three  distinct  effects  from  the 
muliform  type  of  contraction : 

i.  Compression  of  the  laminated  structures.  2. 
Changes  in  the  form  of  the  pedal  bone  by  which  it  has. 
been  made  less  wide  and  more  long,  thus  occasioning^ 
encroachments  upon  the  articulating  surfaces  of  the 
pedal  joint.  3.  Undue  strain  of  the  perforans  tendon 
resulting  from  an  elongation  of  the  foot  at  th*e  time  the. 
toe  of  the  foot  leaves  the  ground. 

No  Remedy. 

330.  For  alterations  in  the  form  of  the  pedal  bone 
there  is  no  remedy,  but  lameness  may  be  overcome  by 
the  use  of  a  shoe  so  modified  as  to  require  less  motion 
in  the  pedal  joint,  and  to  reduce  the  leverage  upon  the 
perforans  tendon  caused  by  the  extra  length  of  the 
foot.  That  shoe  is  the  full  centre-bearing  as  seen  at 
Cut  2 1 .  A  rocker  or  centre-bearing  shoe  limits  the 
movements  of  the  hinge-like  articulation  and  gives  it 
comparative  rest;  and  it  shortens  in   the  same  propor- 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  203 

tion  the  under  surface  of  the  foot,  which  therefore 
lessens  undue  strain  of  the  perforans  tendon  at  every 
step.  A  lateral  expander  gives  freedom  to  the  lateral 
laminae,  and  liberates  the  crushed  and  imprisoned  frog; 
and  by  removing  pressure  from  the  secreting  structures 
reconstruction  of  healthy  tissues  rapidly  follows.  By 
these  means  extremely  bad  cases  of  this  form  of  con- 
traction have  been  relieved  of  pain  and  lameness,  and 
may  be  again  when  the  mode  of  operation  is  generally 
understood  as  I  wish  it  to  be. 


Type  of  Contraction  No.  4. 

331.  The  fourth  form  or  type  of  contraction  seems 
to  combine  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  three  forms 
already  described,  and  yet  has  some  peculiarities  of  its 
own  sufficient  to  distinguish  it  from  the  others.  This  is 
the  peculiar  effect  of  a  dry,  hard  sole.  Whether  horses 
be  shod  or  barefooted,  the  growth  of  the  horn  goes  on 
just  the  same,  and  all  the  time.  Two  horses  standing 
on  the  same  dry  floor  for  six  months,  one  shod  and  the 
other  unshod,  will  have  their  feet  contracted  in  about 
the  same  time  and  in  the  same  degree.  The  effect  of 
leaving  the  feet  unpared  is  that  the  slant  or  the  forward 
angle  at  which  even  healthy  feet  grow  causes  them  to 
warp  or  contract  in  proportion  to  the  weight  they  have 
to  carry,  as  seen  at  Fig.  1. 

The  Problem  Solved. 

332.  Here  are  the  factors  in  the  problem  of  contrac- 
tion and  its  causes  proximate  and  ultimate : 

1 .  The  bearing-point  of  the  heels  has  been  carried 
forward  toward  the  centre  of  the  line  or  axis  of  bearing 
(see  Cut  1,  letter  E). 

2.  The  bearing-point  of  the  toe  has  been  carried  for- 


204  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

ward  several  inches  beyond  the  same  axis  of  bearing. 
The  necessary  effect  of  this  mere  growth  of  hoof, 
whether  the  animal  is  standing  still  or  in  motion,  is  to 
place  more  weight  upon  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot 
than  its  proper  share.  In  fact,  it  has  unbalanced  the 
foot,  and  this  unbalancing  of  the  foot  favors  one  portion 
at  the  expense  of  other  portions  of  the  limb.  The 
higher  or  longer  the  walls  grow  the  less  calculated  they 
become  to  sustain  weight,  and  as  if  this  were  not  a  suffi- 
cient cause  of  mischief  another  factor  comes  into  play 
to  augment  the  danger.  The  wall  has  been  growing, 
and  the  sole  has  not  been  idle,  and  what  one  would 
think  ought  to  prevent  contraction  actually  becomes 
one  of  its  auxiliary  causes.  Dry,  hard,  and  dense 
horn,  all  else  being  equal,  will  cover  a  less  area  of 
space  than  the  same  horn  if  in  a  moist  and  elastic  con- 
dition; hence  it  is  that  as  the  sole  becomes  dry  and 
hard,  its  mechanical  contraction  from  this  cause  pulls 
in  the  walls  laterally  and  thus  aids  in  the  work  of  gen- 
eral contraction. 

A  Digression. 

333.  Too  many  owners  of  horses,  who  are  probably 
not  very  well  posted  in  such  matters,  attribute  to  bad 
shoeing  those  results  which  ought  to  be  laid  to  the 
account  of  neglecting  to  have  the  horses'  feet  pared 
down  and  shod  regularly  and  sufficiently  often.  I  have 
known  some  who  would  allow  their  horses  to  go  two  or 
three  months  without  paring  or  shoeing,  and  then  won- 
der why  the  horse  went  so  badly,  and  could  find  no 
blame  for  any  one  but  the  shoer.  They  were  probably 
not  aware  of  the  fact  that  the  injuries  caused  by  the 
overgrowth  of  hoof  even  while  the  horse  is  standing  still 
are  much  greater  than  hard  work  would  be  with  feet 
kept  to  the  natural  size. 


THE  FOOT  OF  THE  HOksE.  20J 


A  Growing  Hoof  a  Growing  Evil. 

334.  We  have  seen  that  overgrowth  of  sole  as  well 
as  overgrowth  of  wall  is  a  source  of  danger.  At  the 
risk  of  being  thought  tedious  I  must  make  a  few  more 
remarks  upon  this  condition  of  the  foot,  wherein  the 
sole  plays  so  conspicuous  a  part.  A  growing  hoof  is  a 
growing  evil,  and  the  longer  the  space  of  time  between 
each  paring  or  trimming  the  foot,  even  supposing  it  to  be 
done  passing  well,  so  will  be  the  magnitude  of  the  evil. 
Even  the  wall  itself  without  any  aid  from  the  sole  has  a 
constant  tendency  to  contract.  Nature  supplies  moist- 
ure sufficient  to  the  interior  of  the  wall  as  far  as  the 
laminated  structures  extend,  and  no  further.  The 
longer  the  walls  grow  after  being  deprived  of  naturally 
supplied  moisture,  the  dryer,  the  more  dense,  and  more 
compact  it  becomes,  and  therefore  the  more  mischievous 
in  its  effects.  It  not  only  contracts  itself,  but  its  self- 
contracting  force  is  so  great  that  the  sides  and  quarters 
of  the  hoof  above  it  are  drawn  inward  with  such  a 
powerful  grasp  that  contraction  is  the  result ;  and  this 
force  increases  as  long  as  the  hoof  continues  to  grow. 

Remove  Excrescences. 

335.  It  is  when  the  bottom  of  the  foot  is  filled  with 
overgrown  sole  that  the  wall  and  widest  part  of  the 
pedal  bone  are  drawn  together  from  side  to  side  by  the 
shrinking  of  the  overgrowth  of  both  wall  and  sole. 
They  are  virtual  excrescences,  and  should  be  removed 
as  fast  as  they  appear.  Moisture  will  aid  in  removing 
these  sources  of  danger.  Under  anything  like  natural 
conditions  the  sole  exfoliates  or  sheds  off  in  flakes,  and 
would  be  kept  down  in  this  way  if  no  shoe  were  attached 
to  the  foot  and  the  animal  running  wild.     The  true  sole,, 


206  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

if  never  left  thicker  than  its  natural  thickness,  has  no 
tendency  to  contract  at  the  transverse  diameter  of  the 
foot,  and  therefore  could  never  cause  a  round  foot  to 
become  oblong. 

Penalty  of  Neglect. 

336.  The  fault,  then,  is  in  neglecting  to  pare  the  foot 
monthly  or  oftener  if  it  needs  it.  Owners  of  horses 
cannot  be  impressed  too  deeply  with  the  importance  of 
this  fact  as  one  of  the  absolute  requirements  of  the 
horse,  the  neglect  of  which  are  penalties  of  a  very  seri- 
ous nature,  and  which  are  exacted  to  the  uttermost 
jar  tiling  from  the  horse  and  his  master  both  ;  from  one 
in  the  form  of  suffering  and  disability,  from  the  other 
in  vexation,  disappointment,  and  pecuniary  losses.  If 
the  owner  cannot  or  will  not  allow  the  feet  to  be  pared 
oftener  than  once  a  month,  moisture  should  at  least  be 
supplied  to  the  sole,  which  would  prevent  its  attach- 
ment to  or  cause  its  detachment  from  the  wall  and  thus 
ward  off  one  of  the  ill  effects  of  an  overgrown  sole;  but 
nothing  can  be  done  for  the  overgrown  wall  but  to  cut  it 
down.  In  all  my  forty-five  years  of  experience,  I  have 
never  seen  a  contracted  foot  where  it  has  been  kept 
down  to  its  natural  size  by  frequent  paring. 

Another  Cause  of  Contraction 

337.  Is  a  shoe  concaved  too  much  near  the  heels 
(see  Cut  17).  Contraction  in  this  case  is  produced  by 
the  shoe  being  fitted  too  full  at  the  heels,  and  the  heels 
being  allowed  to  rest  upon  the  concave  instead  of  the 
level  surface  of  the  heel  of  the  shoe.  Sometimes  one 
heel  only  becomes  affected  (see  Fig.  18),  where  one  of 
the  heels  is  so  full  as  to  rest  on  the  seated  part  of  the 
shoe  easily,  while  the  opposite  side  from  not  being  so 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  207 

full  rests  upon  the  slanted  surface  and  is  forced  inward 
at  every  step.  The  doubling  in  at  the  quarters  is  the 
effect  of  the  resistance  offered  by  the  wings  of  the  pedal 
bone.  The  pedal  bone  fills  the  front  half  of  the  foot 
only.  All  behind  and  between  the  wings  of  that  bone 
are  soft,  elastic  tissues,  that  yield  to  the  mechanical 
expansion  of  the  quarters.  The  effect  of  heels  con- 
tracted, as  in  Fig.  17,  is  that  when  both  heels  so  con- 
verge toward  each  other  they  cease  to  carry  the  weight 
imposed  upon  them,  and  they  sink  down,  and  the  ten- 
dency of  this  sinking  is  to  strain  the  perforans  tendon. 
Of  course  the  effect  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  intensity 
•of  the  cause.  Now,  as  the  weight  of  the  animal  should 
be  carried  equally  by  the  fore  and  hind  portions  of  the 
foot,  whatever  causes  an  unequal  distribution  of  this 
weight  is  pernicious  and  productive  of  mischief.  With 
two  converging  or  contracted  heels  sinking  down,  nearly 
the  whole  labor  of  the  limb  devolves  upon  the  front 
half  of  the  foot.  A  horse  with  feet  so  contracted  is 
liable  to  all  the  ailments  attributed  to  extra  height  of 
the  toe,  by  its  causing  undue  strain  upon  the  perforans, 
and  its  necessary  accompaniment,  compression  of  the 
bones  in  the  front  aspect  of  the  leg.  Standing  or  trav- 
elling, a  horse  with  a  foot  of  this  character  is  always 
pointing,  trying  to  find  that  support  for  his  heels  of 
which  he  has  been  deprived  by  contraction.  The  ani- 
mal wears  his  shoe  mostly  at  the  toe,  and  his  feet  and 
even  his  shoulders  are  mostly  carried  in  front  of  a  ver- 
tical line,  so  much  so  that  his  chest  has  the  appearance 
of  being  sunken  in,  and  for  that  reason  such  cases  have 
acquired  the  name  of  chest  founder.  This  character  of 
feet  will  cause  horses  to  paw  their  bedding  into  a  heap 
so  that  they  can  elevate  their  heels  upon  it,  and  thus 
relieve  the  strain  upon  the  perforans  which  causes  so 
much  uneasiness.  Frequent  stumbling,  too,  is  the 
effect  of  this  kind  of  contraction. 


208  THE  FOOT  OF  THE  HORSE. 


Ridges  on  the  Wall. 


338.  When  the  heels  are  contracted  as  in  Cut  17,  the 
hoof  secretions  are  increased  in  the  front  part  of  the 
coronet,  the  result  of  undue  stimulation  through  the 
extra  weight  thrown  upon  the  laminae  in  the  front  part 
of  the  foot.  The  secretions  of  the  hinder  half  of  the 
foot  are  diminished  from  this  very  cause.  The  differ- 
ence in  the  rates  of  growth  are  to  be  measured  by  the 
relative  distance  between  the  ridges  at  the  front  of  the 
hoof  and  those  at  the  back  part.  It  will  be  usually  seen 
that  they  are  pretty  close  together  at  the  heels,  but 
wider  apart  on  the  front  of  the  hoof  (see  Cut    7) . 

Mechanical  Expansion. 

339.  In  order  to  show  how  a  foot  can  be  modified  in 
form  by  mechanical  appliances,  I  will  briefly  describe 
one  of  the  cases  which  afforded  me  an  opportunity  of 
considering  this  problem.  The  case  was  one  of  utter 
disablement  from  work,  and  his  weight  was  carried  en- 
tirely upon  his  toes;  it  would  compare  unfavorably  with 
Cut  5.  The  feet  were  cut  to  the  white  line,  and  rolling- 
motion  shoes  attached.  The  highest  part  of  the  curve 
was  one  inch  higher  at  the  heels  than  elsewhere.  As 
will  have  been  seen,  it  was  not  placed  in  the  centre  of 
the  foot,  but  at  the  back  part  under  the  heels,  and  it 
brought  the  limb  from  pointing  in  front  of  a  vertical 
line  from  the  shoulder  to  the  back  of  the  vertical  line. 
The  extra  height  of  the  heels  was  a  compensation  for 
the  pedal  bone  being  held  too  high  by  the  convex  form 
of  the  front  outline  of  the  hoof.  Fore-and-aft  balance 
being  obtained,  the  lateral  balance  was  sought  for  by  a 
self-a.ting  expander.  The  very  next  day  that  horse 
travelled  twenty-five  miles,  and  never  lost  a  day's  work 
for  many  a  day.     In  this  operation  two  purposes  were 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  20Q 

in  view  :  one  was  to  stop  the  pointing ;  and  the  other,  by 
raising  the  heels  a  little  higher  than  the  toe,  to  stimulate 
the  secretion  of  horn  in  the  region  of  the  heels,  which 
would  strike  the  ground  first ;  and  increased  secretions 
in  the  back  region  of  the  foot  would  be  attended  by- 
diminished  secretions  in  the  front  region  of  the  foot. 
At  the  end  of  one  year  the  convex  outline  had  disap- 
peared entirely  for  a  straight  one.  The  secretions  had 
so  increased  at  the  heels  and  diminished  in  the  front  of 
the  foot  that  the  tendency  of  the  wall  was  observed  to 
become  a  concave  surface,  and  to  counteract  this  tendency 
we  had  to  lower  the  heels  and  raise  the  toe  when  a  little 
over  a  year  before  we  had  to  lower  the  toe  and  raise  the 
heels ;  proving  that  a  horse  in  regard  to  his  feet  can  be 
pretty  much  what  we  make  him. 

General  Principles  of  Treatment. 

340.  It  is  impossible  to  give  directions  which  will 
suit  every  form  or  kind  of  contraction,  since  every  case 
has  some  individual  peculiarity  or  requirement.  Gen- 
eral directions  only  can  be  given,  but  any  intelligent 
horseshoer  or  amateur  can  readily  perceive  what  modi- 
fications of  the  treatment  may  be  necessary  for  excep- 
tional or  individual  cases.  The  first  thing  to  do,  having 
a  contracted  foot  to  treat,  is  to  ascertain  to  which  particu- 
lar class  or  form  of  contraction  the  case  belongs.  The 
chart  on  pointing,  and  the  palpable  and  visible  evidences 
before  you,  ought  to  render  this  an  easy  matter.  Re- 
member, 

The  Objective  Point 

in  all  you  do  is  to  balance  the  pedal  bone.  Upon  the  per- 
fect adjustment  of  this  bone  everything  else  depends. 
After  cutting  to  the  white  line  the  foot  may  require  to 
be  propped  up  here  or  there,  and  that  propping  up  is  to 
14 


2IO  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

be  effected  by  an  extra  thickness  of  the  shoe  at  the 
lowest  part.  That  lowest  part  may  be  at  the  toe  or  the 
heels  or  the  inside  or  outside  of  the  foot ;  but  wherever 
it  is,  the  shoe  must  be  made  thicker  or  thinner  as  cir- 
cumstances require  for  the  express  purpose  of  equalizing 
the  bearings  of  the  pedal  bone.  There  must  be  no  tor- 
sion or  distortion  of  the  pedal  joint;  and  it  can  always 
be  known,  by  the  horse  ceasing  to  point,  whether  the  pedal 
bone  is  properly  adjusted  or  not.  This  fact  is  an  im- 
portant guide  in  the  operation  of  balancing  a  foot ;  when 
the  balance  is  all  right,  he  virtually  tells  you  it  is  by 
standing  erect  upon  it.  A  perfect  balance  is  the  desid- 
eratum, lengthwise  and  crosswise  both.  Having  got  the 
lengthwise  balance  in  the  manner  indicated — that  is,  by 
aneans  of  a  properly  constructed  shoe — we  promote  the 
Testoration  of  the  lateral  balance  by  means  of  a  self- 
acting  expander,  a  small  steel  instrument  which  exerts 
a  lateral  pressure  outwardly  when  placed  in  a  proper 
position  between  the  heels  of  the  hoof.  This  expander 
works  slowly  but  surely,  and  in  perfect  harmony  with 
the  shoe,  in  restoring  natural  balance  to  the  foot  in 
every  direction.  If  these  simple  measures  are  applied 
with  care  and  judgment,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  your 
horse  can  go  about  his  usual  work  right  away,  and  con- 
tinue at  it  every  day,  and  he  will  be  the  happier  and  his 
owner  the  richer  as  a  consequence. 

Expander  all  the  Time. 

341.  I  have  owned  several  fast  horses  with  feet  so 
deformed  that  without  an  expander  being  worn  con- 
stantly they  would  not  speed  so  fast,  on  account  of  the 
hoof  returning  to  its  old  form,  and  thereby  losing  the  bal- 
ance to  some  extent.  Feet  formed  so  as  to  resemble 
Cuts  17  and  18,  when  once  expanded  will  by  careful 
monthly  shoeing  be  very  likely  to  retain  their  natural 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  211 

form.  When  the  feet  have  become  very  deformed  the 
expander  should  remain  in  use  until  there  is  an  entire 
change  of  hoof,  which  takes  about  a  year's  time  to  ac- 
complish. It  does  not  take  so  long  if  the  deformity  is 
less  pronounced.  As  to  the  management  of  the  feet 
while  the  expander  is  in  operation,  moisture  to  the  foot 
is  not  objectionable,  but  it  is  by  no  means  indispensa- 
ble, as  the  outward  pressure  is  constant,  and  wet  or  dry 
the  hoof  as  fast  as  it  is  secreted  becomes  remodelled 
without  failure  to  its  natural  form. 

The  time  to  begin  the  use  of  an  expander  is  when 
the  feet  show  that  they  are  getting  out  of  shape.  It  will 
be  an  easy  matter  then  to  restore  them  to  good  form. 
Horses  of  every  age  and  description  or  form  or  texture 
of  feet,  as  long  as  they  live,  are  amenable  to  treatment. 
I  have  had  some  cases  that  were  very  aged  who,  after 
their  feet  were  expanded,  would  hop,  skip,  and  jump  like 
colts  at  play.  Horses  raised  under  the  careful  watch- 
ing and  management  and  shod  upon  the  principles  and 
practice  I  am  endeavoring  to  inculcate,  may  be  taken  to 
market  as  perfect  as  the  day  they  were  foaled. 

The  First  and  Last  Cause. 

342.  I  cannot  emphasize  too  strongly,  that  neglect  to 
pare  the  horse's  foot  down  to  the  white  line,  and  suffi- 
ciently often,  is  the  first  link  in  the  chain  of  causation 
which  leads  to  all  the  horse's  misfortunes,  his  miseries, 
his  diseases,  and  his  disablements,  first,  last,  and  all  the 
time.  It  is  the  underlying  and  the  overlying  cause.  If 
there  is  ever  to  be  a  good  time  coming  for  horses,  that 
good  time  will  never  come  until  one  of  two  things  shall 
have  happened ;  either  nature  must  change  her  laws  for 
the  better  protection  of  horses'  feet,  or  mankind  must 
change  its  views  in  relation  to  the  same  question.  The 
latter  contingency,  though  difficult,  will  be  more  fikely 


2  12  THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE. 

to  happen  than  the  former  one.  The  age  of  miracles 
has  passed.  It  requires  but  that  the  breeders  and  edu- 
cators, the  owners  and  shoers  of  horses  should  have  the 
simple  but  eternal  fact  engraven  upon  their  understand- 
ings, that  the  foot  must  be  kept  within  certain  well- 
defined  limits  of  growth,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of 
developing  the  horse's  magnificent  capabilities  but  in 
order  to  keep  that  insignificant-looking  little  horny  box 
from  becoming  in  the  future  what  it  is  in  the  present — 
a  veritable  Pandora's  casket  from  which  all  his  troubles 
and  miseries  proceed.  When  this  one  fact  shall  have 
permeated  the  minds  of  all  who  are  concerned  in  the 
truth  and  education  of  the  horse  and  in  utilizing  his 
various  capabilities,  and  though  last  not  least  the  horse- 
shoers — then  shall  the  horse's  millennium  have  arrived. 


Knee-Spring. 

General  Observations. 

343.  All  text-books  on  veterinary  pathology  show 
how  very  little  is  known  of  the  causes  which  produce 
this  morbid  condition.  No  disease  can  be  very  intelli- 
gently discussed  if  the  causes  are  not  fully  understood. 
The  locality  and  general  appearance  of  the  trouble  re- 
quire no  statement ;  what  is  wanted  to  be  understood  is 
the  cause,  the  prevention,  and  the  remedy  when  called 
for.  All  this  might  be  stated  in  a  few  sentences;  but 
as  this  book  is  intended  to  be  primarily  one  of  instruc- 
tion for  every  class  of  horse-owner  and  particularly  for 
horseshoers,  I  must  present  some  rational  exposition 
of  its  causes.  Any  diseased  condition,  I  presume,  stands 
the  best  chance  of  being  successfully  treated  when  its 
causes  proximate  and  remote  are  fully  understood. 

In  our  various  essays  on  particular  forms  of  disease 
we  have  endeavored  to  trace  the  secondary  causes  to 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  2  13 

their  fount  and  origin,  and  we  have  no  wish  to  shirk  the 
task  in  this  case.  It  is  a  source  of  trouble  to  me  that  I 
have  so  much  material  for  the  work  and  so  small  a  space, 
unless  I  produce  a  big  book,  which  I  have  read  some- 
where is  a  big  evil.  I  prefer  to  start  the  game  at  once, 
than  beat  about  the   bush.     An  unbalanced  foot  is 

THE    PRIMARY   CAUSE    OF    KNEE-SPRING — excepting  those 

which  are  the  result  of  natural  conformation.  Some 
horses  have  a  natural  tendency  to  this  defective  form  of 
limb,  but  in  nearly  all  cases  it  is  an  acquired  blemish, 
and  fortunately  there  are  few  cases  beyond  the  reach  of 
mechanical  remedies. 

Causes. 

344.  When  describing  the  various  directions  in 
which  a  horse  points,  we  have  shown  that  he  is  solely 
dependent  upon  his  feet  for  the  maintenance  of  his 
equilibrium.  We  may  now  add  that  he  is  also  depend- 
ent upon  the  due  obliquity  of  certain  parts  of  one  limb 
for  perfection  in  other  parts  of  the  same  limb;  I  refer  to 
due  obliquity  of  the  pastern  joints.  Regarding  natural 
conformation  as  a  strongly  predisposing  cause  of  knee- 
spring,  we  can  trace  this  predisposing  cause  to  an 
oblique  pastern,  and  in  support  of  this  view  we  can  trace 
also  the  forward  angle  or  undue  straightness  of  the  hock 
to  the  self-same  cause,  namely,  undue  obliquity  of  the 
pastern. 

Knee-Spring  and  Straight  Hock. 

345.  We  find  that  the  knee  is  affected  in  its  forward 
angle  by  an  oblique  pastern  as  seen  in  Cut  12,  and  the 
forward  angle  is  altered  in  the  hind  limb  by  an  oblique 
pastern  as  seen  at  Cut  13.  In  the  fore  limbs  it  is  called 
knee-spring;  in  the  hind  straight  hock;  and  this  is  how  it 
comes  about.     The  back  tendons  become  strained  under 


214  THE    F0°T   OF   THE    HORSE. 

weight,  on  account  of  the  obliquity  of  the  pastern.  The 
extensor  tendons  are  not  as  powerful  at  the  knee  as  the 
flexors,  and  are,  therefore,  overcome  by  the  latter,  the 
knee  being  pressed  forward  by  the  obliquity  of  the  pas- 
tern; and  the  same  rationale  applies  also  to  the  hock 
joint. 

Straight  Hock  and  Calf-Knee. 

346.  The  opposite  condition  of  pastern,  that  is,  of  the 
upright  pattern,  produces  the  form  called  calf-knee,  the 
opposite  of  knee-spring.  In  knee-spring  the  limb  falls 
forward  and  in  the  calf-knee  backward  of  a  vertical  line. 
And  so  of  a  hock  with  straight  pasterns,  it  falls  back- 
ward of  a  vertical  line — in  other  words  it  becomes  more 
crooked  as  the  pasterns  stand  straighter.  This  being  a 
rule,  it  strengthens  our  theory. 

Knuckling  and  Knee-Spring. 

347.  The  rationale  of  knuckling  explains  the  causes 
of  knee-spring  as  well  as  of  straight  hock.  To  account 
for  this  is  easy  when  we  consider  that  all  the  back  ten- 
dons or  hinder  braces  of  the  leg  become  relaxed  by  the 
forward  angle  taken  by  the  pastern  in  the  position  of 
knuckling.  In  this  relaxed  condition  of  the  perforans 
neither  the  knee  nor  the  hock  has  any  support  backward 
except  what  is  afforded  by  the  broad  band  which  encir- 
cles the  knee  and  a  few  small  ligaments.  These  bands 
are  called  annular  ligaments  because  they  surround  the 
joint  like  a  ring.  Both  knee  and  hock  can  bend  back- 
ward until  they  have  taken  in  the  slack,  as  it  were,  of  the 
flexors,  unless  they  are  altogether  too  slack.  If  the 
flexors  should  be  too  slack  in  consequence  of  knuckling, 
the  knee  or  the  hock  will  have  nothing  to  support  it 
backward  but  the  bands  and  ligaments  referred  to,  for 
the  fetlock  is  resting  on  the  extensor  tendon,  or  apex  of 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  2  15 

the  pedal  bone,  or  upon  both,  and  none  at  all  on  the 
back  tendon,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  undue  slackness 
of  the  perforans.  This  reference  to  knuckling  has  been 
made  to  enable  the  reader  to  distinguish  between  knee- 
spring  when  ths  result  of  natural  conformation,  and 
when  it  is  a  consequence  of  some  morbid  condition  of 
the  limb.  As  to  the  acquired  causes,  we  can  trace  the 
defective  condition  termed  knee-sprung  to  three  distinct 
deformities  of  the  foot: 

1 .  Height  of  toe,  accompanied,  as  a  rule,  by  feet  re- 
sembling Cut  5. 

2.  Height  of  heels,  accompanied,  as  a  rule,  by  feet 
resembling  Cut  2. 

3.  Height  of  inside  heel  or  of  inside  toe,  or  both  com- 
bined. 

It  will  be  seen  that  we  attribute  knee-spring  to  two 
opposite  forms  of  feet,  namely,  undue  height  of  toe  and 
undue  height  of  heels.  This  will  be  easy  of  explanation 
when  we  reach  the  symptoms.  Meanwhile  I  would  re- 
mark that  the  fetlock  as  well  as  the  knee  is  dependent 
upon  the  formation  of  the  feet  for  their  proper  and  nat- 
ural angle  of  bearing;  and  not  only  may  the  feet  be  of 
different  forms  that  produced  the  defects  called  knuck- 
ling and  knee-spring,  but  the  symptoms  accompanying 
either  form  of  the  feet  may  vary  in  character  accord- 
ingly.    This  brings  me  to 

Symptoms. 

348.  When  an  undue  height  of  the  toe  is  the  cause 
of  knee-spring,  there  are  three  distinct  symptoms  which 
will  denote  that  cause  unerringly,  namely: 

1.  The  foot  lands  upon  the  ground  toe  first,  and  as 
a  result  the  shoe  wears  mostly  at  the  toe  and  frequent 
stumbling  is  the  result. 

2.  The  horse,  while  standing  or  in  action,  points  in 


2l6  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

front  of  a  vertical  line  drawn  from  the  point  of  the 
shoulder. 

3.  The  feet,  as  a  rule,  resemble  that  in  Cut  5. 

When  knee-spring  is  produced  by  undue  height  of 
heels — 

1.  The  horse  when  at  speed,  lands  with  his  heels 
upon  the  ground  first,  and  wears  his  shoes  most  at  the 
heels,  just  the  opposite  of  the  high-toe  habit. 

2.  When  at  rest  the  horse  stands  with  his  fore  feet 
backward  under  his  body,  which  we  call  pointing  back- 
ward. 

3.  When  at  speed  he  travels  with  his  fore  feet  under 
his  body,  showing  that  the  articulation  of  the  pedal  joint 
is  not  equally  divided ;  that  the  flexion  contrary  to  that 
caused  by  too  high  toe,  occupies  more  of  its  share  of  the 
articulation  and  prevents  the  natural  extension  of  the 
limb  in  travelling. 

Lateral  Balance 

349.  Has  an  important  bearing  on  knee-spring.  A 
horse  may  be  knee-sprung  from  too  high  a  toe,  or  too 
high  heels,  and  yet  preserve  his  lateral  balance.  The 
legs  swing  in  direct  lines  like  a  pendulum,  and  when 
they  do  so,  this  form  of  knee-spring  usually  yields  to 
the  simple  process  of  balancing  the  foot.  No  perma- 
nent injury  may  result  from  either  of  the  two  causes 
named.  Balance  the  foot  and  leg  by  paring.  If  the  toe 
is  too  high,  apply  a  modified  centre-bearing  shoe  rolled 
at  the  toe  and  raised  at  the  heel.  In  this  way  you  stop 
the  pointing,  and  to  stop  the  pointing  is  to  straighten 
the  knee.  For  a  foot  too  high  at  the  heel,  the  same 
result  is  attained  by  lowering  the  heels  until  the  horse 
stops  pointing  backward,  and  if  the  heel  cannot  be 
lowered  sufficiently  without  it,  a  shoe  should  be  applied 
hammered  down  thin  at  the  heels. 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  2\J 


Complicated  Causes. 

350.  Knee-spring  can  also  be  the  result  of  a  compli- 
cation of  causes,  the  most  common  complication  being  a 
high  inside  heel  and  a  high  inside  toe,  constituting  the 
whole  of  the  inside  half  of  the  foot  being  too  high. 
When  this  is  the  cause,  less  weight  is  borne  on  the  out- 
side of  the  knee  joint  and  more  weight  is  thrown  upon 
the  inside  of  the  knee  joint.  This  is  a  disagreeable 
complication.  The  symptoms  by  which  we  can  distin- 
guish this  cause  from  the  others  are  seen  in  the  changed 
aspects  of  the  knee.  In  the  latter  case  the  knee  bends 
forward  and  outward,  leaving  a  wider  space  between  the 
two  knees,  while  in  the  two  previous  cases  the  knee 
bends  directly  forward  only.  You  will  also  notice  that 
when  the  knee  bends  forward  and  outward  the  heels 
approach  each  other  inwardly,  and  of  course  the  toe 
turns  outwardly.  This  injury  to  the  knee  caused  by  the 
height  of  the  inside  half  of  the  foot  has  some  resem- 
blance to  the  hock  when  the  latter  is  affected  by  spavin, 
which  it  should  be  remembered  is  produced  by  height  of 
the  inside  toe.  Knees  bowed  outwardly  are  analogous 
in  form  to  hocks  bowed  outwardly.  The  knee-sprung 
horse  suffers  more  when  the  undue  height  is  on  the 
inside  than  when  upon  the  outside  half  of  the  foot. 
The  lower  row  of  the  small  bones  of  the  knee  being 
narrower  than  the  upper  row,  they  suffer  the  most,  and 
callosities  and  bursal  distentions  and  bony  deposits  fre- 
quently make  their  appearance  in  that  region  of  the 
knee  joint.  A  horse  so  affected  travels  with  his  feet 
close  together,  as  the  flexion  of  the  knee  is  difficult; 
and  as  the  cause  continues  the  difficulty  of  flexing  the 
knee  increases.  Partial  or  complete  anchylosis  is  the 
usual  result  in  a  majority  of  such  cases. 


2l8  THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  Remedy 

351.  For  knee-spring  in  the  last  case  described  is 
to  lower  the  inside  half  of  the  foot ;  this  gives  immediate 
relief. 

Sloping  Stalls. 

352.  The  sloping  of  the  stall  has  been  considered  to 
have  something  to  do  with  causing  knee-spring.  It 
may  or  it  may  not  have,  depending  on  circumstances. 
The  sloping  backward  would  help  the  horse  if  his  heels 
were  too  high,  and  be  detrimental  to  the  horse  whose  heels 
were  too  low.  I  have  no  doubt  that  many  horses  have 
changed  owners  whose  satisfaction  or  dissatisfaction 
with  their  horses  had  some  connection  with  the  circum- 
stances referred  to.  The  best  box-stall  for  all  horses 
comes  very  near  to  one  partly  or  wholly  covered  with 
cobble-stones,  when  or  where  the  horse  can  select  a  suit- 
able spot  upon  which  to  balance  himself,  and  so  prevent 
the  uneasiness  he  is  compelled  to  endure  under  other 
circumstances.  It  may  be  noticed  that  a  knee-sprung 
horse  will  often  go  down-hill  lame  and  up-hill  sound, 
which  proves  at  least  that  one  cause  of  knee-spring  is 
high  heels. 

Essay  on  Cutting  and  Interfering. 

Horseman's  Compass. 

353.  In  preceding  pages,  when  explaining  the  causes 
of  pointing,  we  have  attributed  this  abnormal  position 
of  the  horse  to  an  unbalanced  hoof  caused  by  an  undue 
height  of  the  foot,  at  any  one  of  eight  points  of  the 
earth's  compass;  and  have  also  shown  how  the  disturb- 
ing cause  which  produces  disease  can  be  immediately 
located.  We  have  shown  that  within  this  hoof  three 
bones  form  a  joint,  called  the  pedal  joint,  or  the  pedal 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  2 19 

articulation.  We  have  seen  that  this  joint  is  limited  to 
one  kind  of  motion,  namely,  that  of  a  common  hinge, 
which  only  opens  in  straight  lines,  there  being  no  pro- 
vision for  any  lateral  motion  whatsoever.  This  kind  of 
motion,  when  speaking  of  the  horse's  movements,  is 
called  flexion  and  extension. 


Articulations. 

354.  When  the  foot  is  properly  balanced,  and  the 
articulating  surfaces  are  equally  divided,  they  enjoy 
their  due  limits  for  flexion  and  extension;  but  let  there 
be  any  disturbance  of  the  balance  of  the  foot,  and  there 
will  be  an  impediment  to  the  free  articulation  of  this 
joint. 

Shock  and  friction  from  treading  on  uneven  surfaces 
will  be  the  result.  It  hardly  need  be  said  that  it  is  all- 
important  to  prevent  shock  and  friction  to  this  joint,  as 
this  is  the  beginning  of  sorrows  to  the  horse.  It  does 
not  admit  of  a  question  that  an  unbalanced  foot,  from 
whatever  point  it  may  proceed,  whether  from  alterations 
in  the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  or  of  the  shoe,  or  of 
both  combined,  will  interfere  with  the  smooth  working 
of  the  pedal  joint,  by  causing  the  foot  to  reach  the 
ground  with  either  the  toe  or  heel  first,  a  contingency 
which  no  other  animal  besides  the  horse  that  we  know  of 
is  subject  to.  In  this  respect  the  ball  pad  of  the  fleshy- 
footed  animals  furnishes  a  remarkable  contrast  to  that 
of  the  foot  of  the  horse,  whose  foot  pad  is  on  the  inside 
of  the  foot,  a  peculiarity  seemingly  inherited  only  by 
the  equine  race.  The  pad  of  the  ball-footed  animals  is 
always  perfectly  adapted  to  its  immediate  requirements, 
requiring  no  supervision  whatsoever;  it  matures  with 
their  maturity,  "  grows  with  their  growth  and  strengthens 
with  their  strength" — a  perfectly  finished  instrument  of 
progression  as  long  as  the  animal  lives;  but  the  horse's 


220  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

foot  is  the  very  antipodes  of  all  this,  it  changes  its  angle 
of  bearing  from  day  to  day.  It  is  a  perfect  and  yet  un- 
finished instrument.  To  keep  it  perfect  calls  for  never- 
ceasing  watchfulness  and  care  from  the  day  of  its  birth 
to  that  of  its  death. 

Pointing. 

355.  The  first  indication  of  the  foot  and,  therefore, 
of  the  pedal  articulation  being  out  of  balance  is  the  act 
or  fact  of  pointing  with  his  foot  while  standing.  This 
is  a  pointer  or  indicator  of  something  going  wrong  with 
the  pedal  articulation.  This  is  the  first  point,  and  any- 
thing wrong  in  this  joint  will  act  and  react  on  every 
joint  above  it.  The  second  indication  of  disturbed  bal- 
ance is  the  manner  in  which  the  limb  moves  while  the 
animal  is  in  motion.  In  perfect  motion  the  animal 
swings  his  legs  backward  and  forward  in  straight  lines 
with  the  precision  of  a  pendulum,  moving  to  and  fro 
with  perfect  regularity  and  ease,  at  equal  distances  both 
ways.  In  the  perfectly  balanced  limb  the  heel  touches 
the  ground  first,  and  the  toe  is  the  last  to  leave  it  in  each 
stride,  and  this  applies  to  the  fore  and  hind  feet  alike. 
When  the  toe  becomes  too  high,  this  regular  swing 
changes  to  a  more  forward  action  and  less  backward 
action,  the  extension  depriving  the  flexion  of  some  of 
its  share  of  articulatory  surface. 

Contrast  this  movement  with  the  effects  of  high 
heels.  The  order  of  pointing  is  reversed,  and  the 
manner  of  motion  is  changed  with  it.  His  legs  will 
extend  backward  instead  of  forward,  detained  as  it 
were  under  his  body.  All  else  being  equal,  balancing 
the  foot  will  balance  t'he  articulation,  and  you  will  have 
a  perfectly  rhythmical  movement  immediately.  What 
better  proof  can  be  given  that  perfect  action  or  motion 
of  the  limbs  depends  absolutely  upon  a  perfect  balance 
of  the  foot?     It  is  an  incontestable  fact  that  when  the 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  22  1 

feet  are  in  perfect  form,  the  limb  flexes  and  extends 
the  same  on  one  side  of  a  vertical  line  of  the  shoulder 
as  the  other,  in  a  straight  line,  as  said  before,  like  the 
swing  of  a  pendulum.  These  remarks  apply  to  hind  as 
well  as  fore  feet. 

Examine  the  Foot. 

356.  The  form  or  condition  of  the  foot  is  the  same  of 
all  irregular  action.  Two  general  causes  account  for 
this — natural  conformation,  and  mechanical  causes  aris- 
ing from  loss  of  balance.  There  is  one  exception  to 
this  rule:  The  elbow  of  a  horse,  due  to  natural  con- 
formation, may  incline  too  much  outwardly  for  perfect 
symmetry,  and  in  such  a  case  the  limb  will  flex  out- 
wardly and  wabbling  action  will  be  the  result ;  and  vice 
versa,  when  the  elbow  lies  too  close  to  the  ribs  the  legs 
will  flex  inwardly  and  cause  wabbling.  The  former  is 
called  outside  wabbling  and  the  latter  inside  wabbling. 

Form  and  Interfering. 

357.  Deviations  from  straight  lines  in  the  articula- 
tions of  the  limbs  are  caused,  first,  by  two  distinct  forms 
or  parts  of  the  foot.  One  relates  to  the  form  of  the 
foot  at  the  toe  and  the  other  to  the  form  of  the  foot  at 
the  heels.  As  said  before,  a  perfect  foot  with  perfect 
action  lands  on  the  heels  first,  and  the  toe  is  the  last  to 
leave  the  ground.  The  form  has  very  much  to  do  with 
the  prevention  of  interfering  when  the  limbs  are  in 
motion,  whether  it  be  due  to  the  shape  of  the  toe  or  the 
heels.  The  horse  as  a  rule,  when  the  foot  is  perfectly 
circular  in  form  at  the  toe  for  several  inches  on  both 
sides  of  the  toe,  and  of  equal  length  and  height  at  both 
heels,  flexes  and  extends  or  swings  his  limb  as  much  one 
way  as  the  other  in  a  straight  line.  But  if  instead  of 
the  perfectly  circular  toe  there   is  a  projection  or  bulg- 


222  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

ing  at  either  side  of  the  toe,  the  foot  will  no  longer 
swing  in  straight  lines  but  swing  either  inwardly  or 
outwardly  according  as  it  happens  to  be  the  inside  or 
outside  of  the  toe  which  is  the  fullest.  Fulness  of 
inside  toe  causes  the  foot  to  swing  or  wabble  outwardly. 
Fulness  of  the  outside  toe  causes  the  foot  to  wabble 
inwardly,  and  strike  the  opposite  limb.  It  will  be  re- 
membered that  extra  height  at  either  side  of  the  toe 
will  produce  the  same  effect  as  extra  fulness  at  either 
side  of  the  toe ;  now  both  defects  combined  increase 
wabbling  or  interfering  in  that  proportion. 

The  Shoe-Fly  Shoe. 

358.  It  was  to  remedy  or  overcome  interfering  that 
a  shoe  called  shoe-fly  was  patented  by  me  many  years 
ago.  A  drawing  and  indorsement  of  this  shoe  is  to  be 
seen  in  a  Report  on  Horseshoeing  made  recently  to  the 
Agricultural  Department  by  Professor  Holcomb,  D.V.S. 
Interfering  increases  when  the  extension  of  the  foot 
occupies  more  of  the  articulating  surface  than  its  proper 
share,  and  still  more  so  when  it  is  partly  sideways;  that 
is  to  say,  when  the  outside  toe  is  full  and  high  compared 
with  the  inside  heel,  as  this  gives  the  heel  an  inward 
twist  at  every  step. 

Modes  of  Interfering. 

359.  Another  mode  of  interfering  is  caused  by  the 
form  of  the  heels.  The  instinct  of  the  horse  while 
travelling  with  heels  of  different  lengths  or  heights  of 
the  same  foot  causes  him  to  plant  his  foot  inwardly  or 
outwardly  of  a  straight  line,  in  the  endeavor  to  avoid  a 
shock  and  twist  caused  by  the  highest  or  longest  of  the 
two  heels. 

A  long  or  high  outside  heel  or  both  combined  with  a 
straight  pastern  causes  the  foot  to  be  planted  upon  the 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  223 

■ground  on  the  outside  of  a  straight  line,  or  on  the  same 
side  as  that  of  the  highest  heel.  Still  further  to  illus- 
trate this,  the  foot  with  high  outside  heel,  in  order  to 
avoid  a  shock  as  the  foot  lands,  articulates  and  extends 
it  away  from  the  other  leg.  The  inside  heel  being  high 
or  long,  or  both  combined,  the  foot  is  articulated  too 
near  the  opposing  leg,  and  that  also  is  done  to  avoid  a 
shock.  By  adding  fulness  of  the  shoe  to  height  and 
length  of  the  inside  heel,  the  same  effect  will  be  pro- 
duced and  intensified.  Interfering  will  always  be  in 
proportion  to  the  severit)'  of  its  cause.  These  remarks 
apply  to  all  feet,  fore  or  hind,  with  straight  pasterns. 

There  is  one  exception  to  the  above  rules — that  is,  in 
cases  of  oblique  pasterns,  where  the  highest  calk  should 
be  on  the  inside  heel  to  prevent  interfering.  The  ex- 
planation is  this:  with  an  upright  pastern,  the  high  out- 
side heel  causes  the  horse  to  travel  further  apart,  or 
while  travelling  to  point  outwardly,  while  the  high  in- 
side heel  applied  to  an  oblique  pastern  causes  the  fetlock 
to  rotate  outwardly  and  clear  the  way  for  the  coming 
foot.  When  cutting  is  the  effect  of  fulness  at  the  out- 
side toe,  narrow  the  hoof  first  at  that  point;  then,  if  he 
still  cuts,  under-hem  the  shoe  at  the  outside  toe ;  and  if 
the  cause  exists  at  the  inside  heel,  through  being  too 
long,  too  high,  or  too  full,  lower  the  hoof  at  the  heel, 
and  shorten  and  narrow  the  inside  heel  of  the  shoe  one 
inch  or  more.  Height  and  length  on  one  heel  will  tell 
on  hard  roads  the  most.  Both  height  and  length  will 
cause  a  shock,  but  the  height  of  the  heel  will  cause  a 
greater  shock  than  mere  length.  The  fulness  of  the 
shoe  at  the  heels  will  produce  the  same  effect  upon  soft 
roads  by  projecting  beyond  the  circular  line,  thus  cover- 
ing a  greater  surface  of  ground,  and  therefore  will  sink 
less  into  the  ground  than  if  the  shoe  be  short  and  nar- 
row, which  is  the  condition  of  the  opposite  heel.  This 
accounts  for  a  horse  travelling  wider  behind. 


224  TIIE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 


An  Erroneous  Idea. 


360.  I  wish  here  to  correct  a  mistaken  idea  which 
some  horsemen  entertain  in  supposing  that  loading  the= 
outer  half  of  the  shoe  will  cause  the  horse  to  widen  his. 
gait  behind.  Such  an  idea  is  opposed  by  every  mechani- 
cal consideration.  Suppose  you  were  to  load  a  pendu- 
lum, swinging  in  straight  lines,  on  one  side:  would  it 
not  carry  the  weighted  side  nearer  to  the  line  of  gravita- 
tion? Of  course  it  would.  If  the  weight  had  been 
upon  the  inside  it  would  have  carried  the  leg  more  out- 
wardly. Yet  in  spite  of  this  the  extra  weight  of  the 
entire  shoe  and  the  momentum  it  created  overcame  the 
lesser  disadvantage.  But  there  is  another  reason  why 
the  gait  is  widened  under  such  circumstances.  The 
greater  the  superficies  of  iron  upon  the  ground,  without 
any  reference  to  the  mere  weight  of  the  shoe,  the  wider 
will  be  the  action,  for  the  reason  that  the  foot  will  be 
raised  more  on  the  outside  than  on  the  inside  of  the  foot  on 
soft  ground,  and  this  of  itself  will  cause  the  horse  to> 
point  outwardly,  whether  standing  or  travelling. 

Most  Speed  Most  Danger. 

36 1 .  The  annoyance  of  interfering  and  cutting  is  very 
much  increased  by  the  increase  of  speed.  Low  speed 
means  low  cuts,  high  speed  high  cuts.  Interfering  and 
cutting  at  road  gaits  have  been  sufficiently  explained 
except  the  shoe  which  should  be  used  generally  for  in- 
terfering, which  will  now  be  referred  to. 

The  Standard. 

362.  The  shoe  I  call  shoe- fly  is  the  standard  shoe 
for  this  purpose,  and  apart  from  its  tendency  to  slip  is 
preferable  for  road-work  and  speed,  as  it  can  be  made 
lighter  than  the  four-calk  shoe  (Fig.  35). 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  225 

The  four-calk  shoe  is  made  on  the  shoe-.fiy  principle, 
and  is  less  liable  to  slip  than  the  shoe-fly  (Fig.  36). 

A  common  shoe  with  a  toe  piece  set  full  on  the  inside 
toe  in  a  bias  position  as  in  Fig.  37. 

General  Maxims. 

363.  Raising  the  inside  heel  prevents  cutting  to  a 
long  and  oblique  pastern. 

Raising  the  outside  heel  prevents  the  same  to  a  short 
pastern. 

Bear  in  mind  that  the  mechanical  rule  laid  down, 
namely,  that  raising  the  inside  of  the  foot  causes  the 
tread  of  the  feet  to  come  closer  together,  and  vice  versa, 
is  not  broken  by  this  apparent  exception  to  the  rule. 
In  the  case  of  the  oblique  pastern,  the  object  of  raising 
the  inside  heel  is  to  cause  the  fetlock  to  rotate  outwardly, 
of  course — that  is,  away  from  the  opposite  leg  when 
passing  it,  a  movement  which  is  only  practicable  in  the 
hind  leg  without  mechanical  assistance  on  account  of  its 
having  a  ball-and-socket  joint  in  the  limb  which  admits 
of  such  movements,  which  the  fore  limb  has  not. 

The  Ball-and-Socket  Joint. 

364.  This  kind  of  joint  in  the  hind  limbs  gives  greater 
freedom  of  movement  to  those  limbs  than  that  possessed 
by  the  fore  ones.  The  fore  limbs  must  move  in  straight 
lines;  the  hind  ones  have  the  power  to  vary  their  move- 
ments according  to  circumstances,  which  the  fore  ones 
have  not. 

Thus  when  there  is  any  disturbance  of  his  balance  in 
the  hind  limbs  he  can  adjust  the  bearings  of  his  feet 
better,  and  thus  remove  some  of  the  extra  weight  from 
the  highest  part  of  the  foot  when  it  leaves  the  ground. 
The  screwing  of  the  toe  or  twisting  of  the  limb  outwardly 
15 


226  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

is   one    effect   of  the   ball-and-socket   joint  (the   whirl 
bone). 

Natural  Conformation. 

365.  In  general,  cutting  and  interfering  can  be  obvi- 
ated or  overcome  by  mechanical  means,  but  the  rule  is 
not  without  exceptions,  especially  when  their  causes 
spring  from  natural  conformation.  There  is  no  cer- 
tainty that  any  mechanical  remedy  will  correct  these 
faults.  Interfering  and  forging  can  be  inherited  as  well 
as  the  general  form  of  the  animal.  The  least  that  can 
be  done  for  these  exceptional  cases  is  to  apply  the  centre- 
bearing  shoe,  as  this  will  cause  the  foot  to  leave  the 
ground  from  the  centre  rather  than  the  outer  edge  of 
the  foot  and  thus  give  the  legs  a  little  more  freedom  of 
movement.  As  a  rule  we  find  interfering  to  prevail 
largely  among  horses  whose  knees  and  hocks  are  bent 
inwardly,  and  also  among  those  who  are  narrow-chested 
and  narrow-hipped. 

Cutting  at  Speed 

366.  Is  done  on  two  different  parts  of  the  limb,  one 
at  the  inner  part  of  the  hind  legs,  and  mostly  that  of 
the  inner  pastern;  the  other  is  called  high  speedy  cut 
in  the  region  of  the  knee  joint.  The  shoe  shoe-fly  or  one 
of  its  modifications  is  the  best  preventive,  but  while  a 
horse  may  travel  free  from  cutting  at  a  slow  gait,  he 
may  for  various  reasons  cut  or  hit  the  inside  of  the  hind 
limb  against  the  forward  foot  when  at  speed.  As  to 
one  cause,  he  may  be  too  high  or  too  full  or  both  com- 
bined at  the  inside  toe  of  the  hind  foot,  compared  with 
the  outside  heel  of  the  same  foot ;  which  means  that,  all 
else  being  equal,  a  low  and  narrow  outside  heel  will 
produce  the  same  effect  as  that  of  a  full  and  high  inside 
toe ;  and  both  defects  combined  will  increase  the  chances 
of  cutting  twofold. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  227 

In  the  chart  on  pointing  we  have  shown  how  a  full 
and  high  toe  inwardly  will  cause  the  horse  to  point  ex- 
actly in  the  same  direction — that  is,  forwardly  and  in- 
wardly. And  we  have  also  shown  that  any  mode  of 
pointing  or  standing  is  carried  out  when  the  horse  is 
travelling,  whether  fast  or  slow.  With  hind  feet  so 
formed,  the  horse  in  his  attempt  to  land  his  foot  upon 
the  ground  at  right  angles  will  not  do  so  by  reason  of 
the  wrench  and  pain  it  gives  him,  and  to  avoid  this,  in 
his  endeavor  to  equalize  bearing  it  passes  too  near  the 
fore  foot.  To  state  the  cause  is  to  suggest  the  remedy. 
If  the  cause  is  at  the  inside  toe,  lower  and  narrow  it ;  if 
at  the  outside  heel,  raise  it,  or  combine  both  measures 
if  the  shape  of  the  foot  calls  for  it.  It  will  easily  be 
understood  how  a  horse  having  a  high  outside  heel,  in 
order  to  avoid  a  shock  upon  that  heel,  will  plant  the 
foot  outwardly  instead  of  inwardly,  which  direction  will 
prevent  contact  with  the  forward  foot.  Here  is  a  cause 
and  a  remedy  in  few  words. 

Another  Cause 

367.  Of  cutting  at  high  speed  is  the  fore  foot  moving 
outwardly  away  from  its  vertical  line  of  action  by  a  high 
outside  toe,  and  being  carried  into  the  way  of  the  hind 
foot ;  it  is  made  to  occupy  the  space  which  the  hind  foot 
should  have  occupied.  The  remedy  for  this  should  be 
obvious  enough — that  is,  to  balance  the  foot  first,  and  if 
this  is  not  sufficient,  lower  the  outside  half  of  the  foot  a 
little ;  this  will  give  the  tendency  to  carry  the  foot  in- 
ward, and  leave  room  for  the  coming  hind  leg. 

Hitching. 

368.  Defects  in  hind  limbs  are  not  limited  to  the  pro- 
duction of  lameness,  and  interfering  with  either  its  fel- 
low leg  or  the  forward  one  of  the  same  side  but  gives 


228  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

rise  to  that  peculiar  and  disagreeable  species  of  action 
called  hitching,  but  which  I  prefer  to  call  running  of  the 
hind  extremities.  Hind  feet  of  the  form  last  described 
are  very  apt  to  cause  a  horse  to  break  while  at  speed. 
A  perfect  balance  of  every  foot  is  the  surest  ground- 
work for  the  development  of  the  highest  speed. 


Forging. 

369.  We  have  been  showing  the  importance  of  the 
connection  between  the  two  arts  of  shoeing  and  driving 
horses.  An  examplification  of  this  is  to  be  seen  by 
what  follows  in  this  article.  Though  the  defective 
action  called  forging  can  be  controlled  to  some  extent 
by  checking,  it  can  also  be  prevented  by  a  certain  mode 
of  shoeing.  The  effect  of  checking  is  first  that  the 
vertebral  column  or  backbone  becomes  more  or  less 
bent  downward  according  to  the  height  of  the  checking ; 
and  further,  the  bending  downward  of  the  backbone 
gives  a  greater  obliquity  to  the  shoulders,  causing  the 
fore  feet  to  point  forward  standing  or  in  motion,  and 
this  causes  an  obliquity  in  the  corresponding  angle  of 
the  hind  extremities.  There  is,  therefore,  under  such 
circumstances  a  greater  distance  between  the  hind  and 
the  fore  feet,  and  consequently  there  will  be  the  less 
chances  of  forging. 

Checking  also  causes  the  fore  feet  to  be  carried  higher 
than  before,  while  the  hind  feet  will  be  carried  less 
high ;  this  also  diminishes  the  chances  of  forging.  The 
theory  that  checking  prevents  forging  by  separating 
the  hind  feet  from  the  fore  ones  is  analogous  to  the 
theory  that  a  horse  whose  body  is  long  in  comparison  to 
his  height  seldom  forges ;  and  vice  versa,  a  horse  short 
in  body  compared  to  his  height  is  very  apt  to  forge. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  229 

Shoeing  for  Forging. 

370.  The  rationale  of  checking  having  been  ex- 
plained, we  will  describe  our  method  of  shoeing  to 
counteract  forging.  The  first  aim  is  to  cause  the  fore 
feet  to  be  carried  farther  forward  and  the  hind  feet 
farther  backward. 

This  is  to  be  done  by  raising  the  toes  of  the  fore  feet, 
as  this  will  cause  them  to  point  forward  whether  standing 
or  travelling.  Next,  raise  the  heels  of  the  hind  feet, 
which  will  produce  the  opposite  effect,  namely,  pointing 
backward.  This  will  cause  the  feet  to  be  kept  farther 
apart  while  travelling. 

With  many  horses  this  last  method  will  answer,  when 
again  with  some  long  and  crooked  hind  legs  and  sprawl- 
gaited  horses  the  gait  will  have  to  be  shortened,  and 
this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  adding  a  toe  piece  to 
the  hind  shoes,  sometimes  set  full  at  the  toe,  with  no 
heels,  and  by  applying  high  quarter  rolling-motion 
shoes  to  the  fore  feet.  This  rolling-motion  shoe  on  the 
fore  feet  will  cause  them  to  rock  over  quicker  than 
would  a  flat  shoe,  and  thus  enable  them  to  be  kept  out 
of  the  way  of  the  hind  feet,  and  so  prevent  striking. 
The  toe  calks  on  the  hind  shoe  will  shorten  the  stride  of 
the  hind  feet,  and  this  circumstance  will  tend  to  shorten 
the  stride  of  the  forward  feet  also.  Remember,  it  is  the 
extra  length  of  the  stride  that  causes  the  annoyance ; 
and  if  you  succeed  in  shortening  the  stride  your  object  is 
gained.  Also,  bear  in  mind  that,  everything  else  being 
equal,  the  lighter  the  shoes  the  better. 

Extreme  Cases  of  Forging 

371.  May  call  for  the  checking  and  shoeing  processes 
combined,  and  when  they  do  they  very  rarely  fail  of 
their  purpose. 


230  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

How  to  Locate  the  Lameness  of  Horses. 

General  Observations. 

372.  Whoever  wishes  to  become  a  master  in  the  art 
of  locating  foot  lameness  of  the  horse  should  make  a 
careful  study  of  the  chart  on  pointing.  This  chart  will 
furnish  points  of  knowledge  and  rules  for  guidance 
which  are  indispensable  acquisitions  to  whomsoever 
would  become  experts  in  this  heretofore  difficult  art. 

The  Language  of  Motion. 

373.  The  observer  should  look  at  a  horse  both  at  a 
walking  and  an  easy  trotting  pace;  sideways,  coming 
toward  and  going  from.  When  lame  of  one  foot  for- 
ward only,  we  may  notice  that  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
sound  foot  to  and  from  the  ground  will  be  followed  by 
the  same  motions  of  the  head,  that  is  to  say,  the  head 
will  rise  and  fall  with  the  foot.  For  the  lame  leg  the 
head  is  raised  when  it  is  placed  on  the  ground,  and 
comes  down  when  the  lame  foot  is  raised  from  the 
ground. 

The  same  rule  applies  to  the  hind  extremities,  only  it 
is  the  haunch  that  rises  and  falls  with  the  sound  leg  in- 
stead of  the  head.  These  do  not  include  all  the  symp- 
toms of  lameness,  for  the  horse  may  be  lame  of  the  two 
forward  feet  or  of  the  two  hind  feet  separately. 

Elastic  Movements. 

374.  The  symptoms  of  the  two  last  forms  of  lameness, 
whether  it  be  the  two  fore  or  two  hind  limbs  which  are 
implicated,  are  as  follows:  when  trotting  the  step  is 
short  and  just  the  reverse  of  elastic — that  is  to  say,  there 
is  no  spring  in  the  action. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  23! 

The  bounding  and  springing  action  is  only  to  be  seen 
in  sound  limbs.  When  the  lameness  is  very  painful 
this  peculiarity  of  motion  is  to  be  seen  in  the  walk  or 
the  trot  of  the  affected  animal. 


Must  Keep  Time. 

375.  If  the  fore  limbs  are  the  affected  pair,  they  are 
moved  with  very  short  steps  and  kept  low  to  the  ground, 
while  the  hind  ones  are  raised  high  after  the  fashion  of 
the  stringhalt  horse  and  pointing  under  the  body,  and 
vice  versa  ;  if  lame  in  both  hind  legs  their  action  will  be 
short  and  low,  while  that  of  the  fore  ones  will  be  high 
and  choppy  after  the  fashion  of  the  high-stepping 
coach  horse.  This  unusually  high  action  of  the  sound 
limbs  is  to  be  accounted  for  in  this  way :  they  must  keep 
time  with  the  lame  feet;  so  what  they  lose  in  stride 
they  gain  in  height. 

In  a  severe  case  of  laminitisin  the  fore  feet  this  high 
movement  of  the  hind  legs  is  quite  remarkable  from  the 
fact  that  it  resembles  so  closely  the  movement  of  string- 
halt. 

See-Saw  Motion. 

376.  A  trotting  horse  may  be  lame  in  two  legs  of  the 
same  side  at  one  time.  When  so  affected  the  head  and 
haunch  see-saw  alternately — that  is,  the  head  is  raised 
when  the  lame  fore  foot  is  planted  on  the  ground,  and 
the  haunch  is  raised  while  the  head  lowers  when  the: 
lame  hind  foot  is  planted  on  the  ground.  The  latter 
alternate  motion  is  what  causes  the  see-saw.  The  rise- 
and  fall  of  the  head  becomes  very  much  increased  or 
almost  double  in  the  case  of  two  legs  on  one  side  being 
affected,  than  what  it  is  when  but  one  foot  is  affected, 
whether  it  is  before  or  behind. 


232  THE  FOOT  OF  THE  HORSE. 

Diagonal  Lameness. 

377.  The  horse  is  sometimes  lame  diagonally,  that  is, 
of  one  fore  and  one  hind  foot  crosswise  at  the  same 
time.  In  this  case  the  whole  body  follows  the  rise  and 
fall  of  the  diagonally  sound  limbs,  that  is,  the  head  and 
haunch  lower  at  the  incidence  or  fall  of  the  diagonally 
sound  legs  to  the  ground,  and  become  elevated  as  the 
sound  legs  rise  from  the  ground ;  on  the  other  hand, 
when  the  diagonal  lame  feet  fall  to  the  ground  the 
whole  body  becomes  elevated. 

Exceptions  to  the  Rule. 

378.  It  must  be  observed  that  the  symptoms  of  lame- 
ness indicated  in  the  chart  on  pointing  are  not  abso- 
lutely infallible  in  all  cases  of  lameness,  as  I  have  seen 
horses  lame  in  all  four  feet  at  the  same  time,  and  yet 
that  did  not  point  with  any  foot  or  in  any  direction. 

For  example,  every  foot  may  be  equally  too  high  at 
the  toe.  The  tendency  of  high  toe  being  to  point,  the 
horse  finds  that  the  vertical  position  of  all  the  limbs  is 
the  easiest,  as  by  pointing  with  one  limb  in  such  a  case 
he  would  increase  the  pain  in  the  limbs  which  did  not 
point. 

Least  of  Two  Evils. 

379.  To  point  with  every  foot  the  horse  would  place 
himself  in  a  weak  position  for  carrying  his  own  weight, 
just  as  a  common  four-legged  table,  with  its  legs  all 
parallel  and  inclined  in  one  direction,  would  not  carry 
as  much  weight  as  if  its  legs  were  all  vertical ;  it  is  even 
so  with  the  horse — he  can  stand  easier  under  the  weight 
of  his  body  if  all  his  legs  are  kept  vertical  than  if  he 
pointed  any  one  of  them ;  and  the  animal  is  wise  enough 
to  prefer  the  least  of  two  evils. 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  233 


Trotters  and  Pacers. 

380.  This  rule  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  whole  column 
of  the  body,  following  the  incidence  or  fall  of  two 
sound  feet  on  the  ground  at  one  time,  applies  to  the  trot- 
ting and  the  pacing  gaits,  with  this  difference  as  regards 
the  pacer:  in  the  trotter  when  lame  of  two  legs  the  body 
see -saws,  while  in  the  pacer  the  body  follows  the  fall 
of  the  sound  feet  on  one  side,  and  the  rising  of  the 
body  is  concurrent  with  the  falling  to  the  ground  of  the 
lame  foot.     This  rule  is  invariable. 

Lameness  Without  Pointing. 

381.  A  horse  may  be  lame  in  all  four  feet,  by  being 
too  high  on  one  side  of  each  foot,  as  well  as  by  being 
too  high  at  each  toe,  and  yet  show  no  tendency  to  point. 

When  a  horse  is  too  high  in  the  heels  of  all  four  legs, 
it  is  the  same  as  regards  pointing.  The  explanation  is 
the  same :  the  pointing  of  one  foot  would  intensify  the 
pain  in  and  overtax  the  strength  of  all  the  other  feet. 

Absolute  Symptoms. 

382.  These  illustrative  cases  show  that  a  horse  may 
be  stiff  or  otherwise  defective  in  every  limb,  and  yet 
show  no  symptom  of  it  by  pointing.  The  pointing  symp- 
toms can  only  be  relied  upon  absolutely  in  cases  where 
the  horse  is  lame  in  one  or  two  limbs  only. 

Lameness  Without  Pain. 

383.  A  horse  may  exhibit  some  degree  of  lameness 
when  there  is  no  evidence  of  disease,  pain,  or  fever,  from 
the  fact  that  the  inside  half  of  one  of  the  hind  feet,  com- 
pared with  the  outside  half  of  the  same  foot,  is  too  high. 


234  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

It  is  plain  that  such  a  foot  hanging  vertically  could  not 
touch  the  ground  with  both  heels,  and  in  order  to  do  so. 
he  must  carry  his  leg  forward  and  inward,  and  this  is 
just  what  he  does  standing  or  travelling.  Just  so  much 
as  it  recedes  from  the  vertical  line,  so  much  shorter 
than  the  opposite  leg  will  it  become. 

This,  as  said  before,  is  done  to  strike  the  ground  with 
both  heels.  On  account  of  this  treading  inwardly,  an 
uneven  gait  of  the  hip  is  produced,  which  has  often  been 
mistaken  for  a  painful  lameness  and  for  hitching. 

Anchylosis. 

384.  Furthermore,  a  partial  or  complete  anchylosis  of 
the  knee,  the  hock,  the  fetlock,  or  the  pedal  articula- 
tion may  cause  an  unevenness  of  gait,  which  though 
unattended  by  fever  or  pain  is  sometimes  mistaken  for 
lameness  caused  by  pain.  In  such  cases  the  horse 
moves  his  leg  with  an  outward  and  forward  movement 
in  order  to  clear  the  ground,  which  of  itself  gives  rise  to- 
a  suspicion  of  lameness.  In  general,  lameness  may  be 
considered  the  language  of  pain ;  but  I  think  it  ought 
not  to  be  considered  invariably  so.  I  might  instance  a 
case  of  this  character  belonging  to  myself,  which  from 
an  injury  to  the  fetlock  caused  it  to  become  more 
oblique  than  that  of  the  opposite  leg,  thereby  causing 
uneven  action.  Some  would  mistake  this  for  a  painful 
affection,  yet  it  never  afforded  the  slightest  evidence  of 
pain  or  inconvenience  while  travelling. 

Lameness  from  Loss  of  Balance. 

385.  Having  traced  some  forms  of  lameness  to  loss  of 
balance  in  the  direction  of  the  heels  and  toe,  we  will 
now  show  how  lameness  is  to  be  diagnosed  when  it  is 
produced  by  an  unequal  balance  of  the  foot  in  its  lateral 
aspects.     Balance  is  essential  in  both  directions. 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  235 

In  order  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  a  lameness  has 
its  origin  in  a  lateral  half  of  the  foot,  and  which  lateral 
half  that  is,  whether  it  is  on  the  inside  or  the  outside, 
we  should  select  a  suitable  piece  of  inclined  ground 
upon  which  to  try  the  case.  The  animal  should  be 
jogged  across  this  incline  to  and  fro.  The  weakest  side 
of  the  foot  will  be  shown  by  the  animal  going  more 
lame  in  one  direction  than  he  does  in  the  other;  and 
it  will  be  found  that  the  affected  side  will  be  that  on  the 
highest  side  of  the  incline.  I  became  acquainted  with 
this  fact  by  my  experience  with  a  ringbone  horse 
many  years  ago  on  a  road  which  was  high  at  the  sides 
and  low  at  the  middle.  On  one  side  of  the  road  he 
went  lame,  on  the  other  sound.  This  mere  fact  of  ob- 
servation at  first,  like  many  others,  developed  in  time 
into  a  fact  of  considerable  importance  in  relation  to  the 
horse's  foot,  its  structure  and  its  requirements  in  health 
and  disease,  as  an  aid  in  diagnosing  the  causes  of  lame- 
ness, in  pointing  out  the  absolute  necessity  of  perfect 
balance  for  perfect  action,  and  in  leading  to  the  inven- 
tion of  the  centre-bearing  shoe. 

Do  the  Best  You  Can 

386.  If  there  is  no  suitable  inclined  ground  to  be  had. 
When  we  are  in  doubt  as  to  which  side  of  the  foot  is 
the  source  of  the  lameness,  we  should  have  the  horse 
jogged  round  in  a  very  small  circle.  Trot  him  both 
ways  of  the  circle;  he  will  go  better  one  way  than 
another.  If  he  goes  most  lame  in  trotting  to  the  left, 
the  cause  of  the  lameness  will  be  in  the  outside  half  of 
the  near  fore  foot  being  too  high ;  and  if  he  goes  most 
lame  in  trotting  to  the  right  it  will  prove  that  the  out- 
side portion  of  the  foot  is  too  high,  and  therefore  the 
cause  of  the  lameness  and,  vice  versa  the  cause  of  lame- 
ness being  due  to  the  inside  of  the  foot  being  too  high. 


2^6  THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 


One  More  Lesson. 

387.  The  horse  should  be  slowly  trotted  led  by  the 
halter,  the  observer  viewing  him  sideways.  It  will  be 
easy  to  imagine  a  vertical  line  from  the  point  of  the 
shoulder.  If  a  horse  travels  with  one  or  both  feet  in 
advance  of  this  vertical  line,  letting  his  toe  reach  the 
ground  first,  as  when  afflicted  with  navicular  disease,  it 
indicates  undue  height  of  the  toe;  and  if  he  travels 
backward  of  the  vertical  line,  it  indicates  undue  height 
of  the  heels. 

Unfailing  Signs. 

388.  A  horse  travelling  lame  down-hill  indicates  un- 
due height  of  the  heels,  and  going  lame  up-hill  shows 
undue  height  of  the  toes. 


First  and  Last  Words. 

389.  Whoever  wishes  to  become  a  master  of  the  art 
of  locating  foot  lameness  of  the  horse  should  make  a 
careful  study  of  the  chart  on  pointing.  This  chart  will 
furnish  points  of  knowledge  and  rules  for  guidance 
which  are  indispensable  acquisitions  to  whomsoever 
would  become  experts  in  this  heretofore  difficult  art. 

Tendons  and  Ligaments  of  the  Leg. 

The  Suspensory  Ligament. 

390.  (See  Fig.  1,  letter  D.)  I  take  the  liberty  of 
citing  from  Professor  Williams'  work  on  Veterinary 
Surgery  the  following  description  of  this  remarkable 
ligament  (page  1,  letter  A):  "A  broad  strong  band  of 
white  fibrous  tissue,  arising  from    the    supra-posterior 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  237 

part  of  the  cannon  bone,  lying  in  the  hollow  bounded 
on  either  side  by  the  small  cannon  bones;  it  extends 
downward,  bifurcating  above  the  fetlock,  becoming  at- 
tached to  the  lateral  parts  of  the  sesamoids ;  thence  it 
is  continued  downward  to  the  tendon  of  the  extensor- 
pedis  at  the  antero-inferior  part  of  the  os  suffraginis, 
where  its  divisions  become  united  and  are  generally 
lost  in  the  substance  of  that  tendon." 


The  Perforans  Tendon. 

391.  (See  Fig.  1,  letter  B.)  Lying  next  to  the  sus- 
pensory ligament  is  the  flexor  pedis  perforans,  having  a 
short  ligament  attached  to  it  which  is  called  the  check 
ligament,  because  it  is  plainly  its  function  to  limit  or 
check  the  action  of  the  perforans  upon  the  pedal  bone. 
This  check  ligament  has  its  upper  end  attached  to  the 
top  of  the  cannon  bone  in  company  with  that  of  the  sus- 
pensory. The  perforans  passes  down  over  the  sesamoid 
at  the  fetlock  joint,  which  serves  the  double  purpose  of 
a  pulley  and  a  fulcrum  like  the  small  bone  at  the  navic- 
ular joint;  over  which  it  passes  next  and  finds  an  in- 
dependent insertion  into  the  lower  posterior  part  of  the 
pedal  bones. 

The  Perforatus 

392.  (See  Fig.  i,  letter  A)  is  the  hindermost  ten- 
don. From  the  knee  it  runs  over  the  sesamoids  at  the 
back  of  the  fetlock  joint,  forming  a  synovial  sheath  at 
that  point  for  the  perforans  to  glide  through  easily  and 
over  the  fulcrum  formed  by  the  sesamoids ;  after  which 
it  divides  into  two  parts,  which  grasp  the  lower  pastern, 
and  its  distinctive  character  is  lost  in  the  band  which 
surrounds  the  lower  pastern  joint ;  it  becomes  virtually 
a  part  of  that  annular  band. 


238  THE  FOOT  OF  THE  HORSE. 


Extensor  Pedis. 

393.  (See  Fig.  1,  letter  E.)  The  extensor  pedis  lies 
directly  in  front  of  the  leg  below  the  fetlock  and  finds 
its  insertion  on  the  upper  border  of  the  apex  of  the 
pedal  bone. 

Functions  of  Tendons  and  Ligaments. 

394.  The  functions  of  all  these  tendons  and  liga- 
ments are  to  secure  all  the  necessary  minor  and  reciprocal 
movements,  without  friction  and  concussion  or  injury 
of  any  kind  to  the  entire  system  of  the  animal,  in  its 
greater  purpose  of  locomotion.  Harmoniously  combined 
action  is  necessary  to  secure  this.  Balance  is  the  ruling- 
power  of  the  whole.  Balance  is  the  governing  princi- 
ple of  all  machinery  moving  or  otherwise,  and  the  living 
machinery  of  the  horse  is  no  exception  to  the  universal 
dominance  of  this  principle.  Without  balance  the  horse 
begins  to  go  to  pieces;  and  when  this  balance,  for  want 
of  knowing  how,  or  other  causes,  is  not  restored,  the  ani- 
mal is  on  the  road  to  ruin,  and  sooner  or  later,  generally 
sooner,  becomes  a  complete  wreck,  not  from  lack  of  con- 
stitutional vigor  but  from  the  deterioration  of  his  loco- 
motory  machinery,  for  want  of  balance  in  his  foot  or 
feet.  The  set  of  the  pedal  bone  determines  the  balance, 
or  the  want  of  it,  of  the  entire  limb,  and  this  set  is  de- 
pendent obviously  upon  the  perfect  form  of  the  hoof — 
and  the  perfect  form  of  the  hoof  upon  the  balance  of  its 
bearing  surface;  therefore  all  the  machinery  of  the 
limb  for  perfect  work  depends  upon  the  perfect  form  of 
the  hoof.  This  has  been  more  fully  enlarged  upon  else- 
where in  these  pages.  The  due  adjustment  of  that 
bearing  surface  depends  upon  man's  knowledge  of  its 
requirements  and  of  his  disposition  to  meet  them. 

The  pedal  bone  plays  a  very  important  part  when 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE.  239 

the  horse  is  at  speed.  It  is  the  medium  through  which 
all  the  tendons  and  ligaments  act  and  react  on  each 
other,  and  weight  is  transmitted  from  one  tendon  or 
ligament  to  the  other  during  the  backward  or  forward 
movements  of  the  limb  while  at  speed. 


Rationale  of  Movements. 

395.  The  rationale  of  these  movements  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  following  terms:  There  is  less  weight 
upon  the  perforans  while  the  limb  is  extended  and  just 
as  it  lands  upon  the  ground,  and  in  that  proportion 
there  is  more  weight  thrown  upon  the  suspensory  liga- 
ment and  perforatus;  and  contrariwise,  as  the  body 
passes  over  the  foot  the  weight  is  thrown  back  on  to  the 
perforans  and  carried  to  the  finishing  of  the  step  back- 
ward, and  therefore  lessening  the  strain  upon  the  sus- 
pensory ligament.  Plainly  the  suspensory  ligament  and 
perforatus  limit  the  forward  and  the  perforans  checks 
its  backward  action. 

Transmission  of  Weight. 

396.  This  view  of  the  transmission  of  weight  from 
tendon  to  ligament  and  from  ligament  to  tendon  during 
motion  receives  confirmation  from  what  may  be  observed 
in  the  movements  of  one  leg  while  pointing.  When  he 
changes  the  direction  of  his  foot,  either  forward  or 
backward,  it  is  to  gain  relief  from  pain  by  shifting  the 
weight  from  one  structure  to  another.  Thus,  if  the  toe 
is  too  high  the  horse  points  to  relieve  the  perforans, 
which  means  throwing  more  weight  on  to  the  suspensory 
ligament  and  perforatus;  and  in  like  manner  when  the 
heels  are  too  high  he  points  backward,  which  relieves 
the  suspensory  ligament,  throwing  weight  on  to  the 
perforans. 


24O  THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE. 

The  Reason  Why 

397.  May  be  explained  once  more  in  order  to  make 
this  treatise  complete  in  itself. 

By  raising  the  toe  the  check  ligament  of  the  perforans 
is  called  into  play;  and  as  the  tendon,  from  the  part  of 
it  where  the  check  ligament  is  inserted  to  the  pedal 
bone,  becomes  strained,  the  pressure  against  the  pastern 
joint  exerted  by  the  strain  forces  of  that  joint  forward, 
and  this  presses  the  upper  end  of  the  lower  pastern  bone 
in  a  forward  direction,  which  presses  unduly  against 
the  extensor  tendon ;  and  when  carried  to  extreme 
flexion  the  upper  end  of  the  small  pastern  bone  will  press 
upon  the  apex  of  the  pedal  bone,  and  its  lower  end  will 
take  a  backward  direction,  and  press  against  the  navic- 
ular bone,  creating  stress  and  strain,  distress  and  pain 
in  both  the  extensor  and  the  perforans ;  and  the  animal 
can  only  relieve  himself  by  pointing  in  a  forward  direc- 
tion." 

Normal  and  Abnormal  Conditions. 

398.  Under  normal  conditions  each  structure  carries 
its  own  share  of  weight,  but  under  abnormal  conditions 
these  structures  have  to  help  each  other  as  best  they 
may,  to  call  the  healing  power  of  nature  into  play.  It 
will  be  readily  comprehended  from  this  explanation 
what  intimate  relations  exist  between  the  perforans 
tendon  and  the  suspensory  ligament,  and  how  the  sim- 
ple act  of  pointing  backward  or  forward  will  shift  the 
burden  of  weight  from  one  structure  to  the  other  as 
circumstances  require. 

The  Ultimate  Link. 

399.  To  trace  this  chain  of  causation  to  its  ultimate 
link,  we  have  but  to  add  what  has  almost  become  a 
formulated  expression — namely,  that  pointing  of  the  foot 


THE    FOOT    OF   THE   HORSE.  24I 

of  the  horse  invariably  locates  the  highest  part  of  the 
circumference  of  that  foot  or  hoof;  that  that  highest  part 
is  always  coincident  with  and  indicates  unerringly  a 
disturbance  of  the  natural  balance  of  the  limb ;  and  that 
by  the  removal  of  this  disturbing  cause,  all  else  being 
equal,  the  natural  balance  of  the  limb  is  restored,  and 
the  cause  or  causes  of  the  lameness  being  removed  the 
effect  or  the  effects  cease. 

Fair  Deductions. 

400.  From  the  foregoing  considerations,  I  think  it 
is  a  just  conclusion  that  the  suspensory  ligament  is  most 
liable  to  injuries  when  the  limb  is  inclined  forward  at 
the  instant  the  foot  lands  upon  the  ground ;  and  on  the 
other  hand,  the  perforans  tendon  is  the  most  exposed  to 
injury  when  at  a  backward  angle  at  the  moment  the 
toe  leaves  the  ground. 

Critical  Junctures. 

401.  The  instant  of  landing  upon  the  ground  for- 
ward, or  the  moment  of  quitting  the  ground  backward, 
are  the  only  points  of  time  when  these  structures  are 
the  most  exposed  to  danger,  for  it  is  then  each  one  is 
left  to  its  own  resources,  as  it  were,  of  strength  and 
endurance.  At  those  critical  junctures  they  are  unable 
to  help  each  other.  When  at  rest  they  sympathize 
with  and  help  each  other  in  their  misfortunes  and  trou- 
bles, by  taking  an  extra  share  of  the  weight  which 
must  be  carried  under  every  circumstance  by  one  or  by 
both  structures  alternately. 

Injuries  to  the  Suspensory  Ligament. 

402.  (See  Fig.  i,  letter  D.)     I  wish  again  to  refer  to. 
the  fact  that  the  design  and  scope  of  this  work  is  limited 
to  diseased  conditions  and  abnormal  action  of  the  limbs , 

16 


242  THE    FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE. 

which  have  their  prime  source  in  an  unbalanced  hoof 
and  pedal  bone.  This  I  regard  as  my  legitimate  field 
of  inquiry.  Horseshoeing  is  my  vocation.  I  am  not  a 
professional  veterinarian,  whose  functions  I  have  no  de- 
sire to  usurp. 

When  either  the  perforans  tendon  or  the  suspensory 
ligament  becomes  injured,  their  respective  symptoms 
other  than  pointing  will  manifest  themselves  in  the 
following  manner:  if  it  be  the  suspensory  ligament,  a 
swelling  will  be  felt  above  the  bifurcation  which  is  half- 
way between  the  knee  and  the  fetlock ;  if  either  of  the 
lower  branches  of  the  suspensory,  the  swelling  will  be 
below  the  fetlock.  These  symptoms,  taken  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  pointing  backward,  point  to  the  common 
injuries  of  the  suspensory  ligament. 

Predisposing  Causes. 

403.  Take  an  unbalanced  foot  for  a  starting-point 
and  it  is  easy  enough  to  trace  its  connection  with  an  in- 
jured suspensory  ligament.  Undue  height  of  either  or 
both  heels  is  the  strongest  predisposing  and  exciting 
cause  of  the  injuries  to  every  part  of  the  suspensory 
ligament  superior  and  inferior,  or,  to  make  it  very  plain, 
above  or  below  the  fetlock  joint,  which  is  susceptible  to 
undue  strain. 

Undue  height  of  both  heels  is  apt  to  produce  sprain 
of  both  of  the  inferior  lateral  ligaments  at  the  same 
time ;  and  if  but  one  of  those  ligaments  is  sprained  it  is 
as  a  rule  caused  by  undue  height,  or  of  height  and  width 
combined,  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  injured  side.  It  is 
well  to  know  and  to  remember  that  when  any  part  of 
the  suspensory  ligament  is  affected  by  sprain,  the  lower 
articulations  of  the  limb  are  not  impaired,  because  the 
suspensories  play  no  part  in  flexing  and  extending  the 
limb;    their  office  being  to  uphold  and  suspend  while 


THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  243 

the  work  of  flexion  and  extension  is  being  accomplished 
by  other  instrumentalities. 

In  common  sprains  of  the  suspensories  the  horse  in 
standing  or  moving  will  be  apt  to  point  backward  in- 
stead of  forward,  and  in  walking  will  finish  the  step 
well  under  his  body,  although  he  will  go  lame  on  a  trot. 
He  may  walk  also  comparatively  free  from  lameness. 
In  a  complete  rupture  of  either  the  superior  or  the  two 
inferior  suspensories,  the  fetlock  will  go  down  to  the 
ground,  or  very  near  it,  and  the  toe  will  be  turned  up- 
ward from  the  ground  accordingly,  which  clearly  shows 
the  function  to  be  that  of  supporting  the  limb.  When 
but  one  lateral  branch  is  ruptured,  the  fetlock  will  be- 
come partly  lowered,  and  the  swelling,  it  is  pretty  safe 
to  say,  will  be  on  the  injured  side. 

Hard  and  Soft  Roads. 

404.  Some  writers  have  observed  that  sprains  of  the 
suspensory  ligament  are  more  likely  to  occur  on  hard 
roads  than  soft  roads.  I  presume  there  must  be  a  reason 
for  this  circumstance,  and  I  present  the  following  as  the 
most  rational  explanation  that  I  am  able  to  give.  On  a 
soft  road  the  heels  are  more  likely  to  sink  in  than  on  a 
hard  road,  and  while  the  heels  remain  sunk  and  the  toe 
elevated  above  the  level  of  the  heels,  the  perforans  and 
the  suspensory  have  a  more  equal  share  in  carrying  the 
weight  than  when  the  heels  and  toe  are  more  on  a  level. 
The  perforans  is  thus  compelled  as  it  were  to  carry  a 
little  more  weight  until  the  critical  juncture  is  over  and 
the  toe  reaches  the  ground.  Another  cause  of  injury  to 
the  suspensory  ligament  is  landing  with  the  heels  upon 
some  high  and  hard  substance  while  the  legs  are  at  their 
most  forward  angle,  and  the  heels  strike  the  hard  ground 
so  suddenly  that  an  instantaneous  relaxation  of  the  per- 
forans follows,  leaving  the  suspensory  to  bear  the  brunt 


244  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

of  the  danger.  Then  there  are  such  causes  as  running- 
down  hill;  stopping  short;  and  jumping  fences  by 
throwing  too  much  weight  upon  the  heels.  Accidents 
of  this  nature  are  always  liable  to  happen  to  horses  if 
they  are  shod  in  the  highest  degree  of  perfection ;  but 
those  liabilities  are  always  increased  when  the  horse  is 
shod  and  left  too  high  at  the  heels. 


Injuries  to  the  Perforans. 

405.  (See  Fig.  1,  letter  B.)  The  perforans  tendon,  it 
will  be  remembered,  has  a  twofold  duty  to  perform,  that 
of  partly  supporting  the  pastern  joint  and  of  flexing  the 
foot.  It  is  therefore  exposed  to  injuries  in  connection 
with  injuries  to  the  pedal  and  pastern  joints. 

When  the  perforans  is  strained,  the  horse  points  for- 
ward, either  standing  or  in  motion,  in  degree  of  the  in- 
tensity of  the  injuries,  whether  the  injury  be  to  the 
check  ligament  or  to  the  perforans  itself.  A  frequent 
seat  of  trouble  is  just  at  the  point  of  junction  of  the 
check  ligament  with  the  perforans.  The  reason  for  this 
is  explained  when  we  consider  its  twofold  function — as 
a  suspender  of  the  pastern  and  as  a  flexor  of  the  foot. 
Any  swelling  of  the  perforans  or  its  sheath  will  prevent 
it  from  gliding  freely  and  without  pain  through  the 
sheath  provided  for  it  at  the  back  of  the  fetlock  joint 
and  the  cannon  bone,  and  over  its  fulcrum  at  the  navic- 
ular bone,  and  thus  prevent  flexion  of  the  foot  by  the 
pain  it  occasions.  Swellings  arising  from  injuries  to 
the  perforans  make  their  appearance  on  the  inside  or 
outside  of  the  leg,  and  voxy  rarely  or  never  at  the  back. 
Further,  in  order  to  distinguish  between  injuries  to  the 
perforans  and  the  suspensories,  it  will  be  found  in  the 
former  case — the  perforans — that  the  painful  flexion  of 
the  foot  causes  the  toe  to  be  dragged  instead  of  being 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  245 

bent  and  raised,  and  the  toe  will    frequently    hit   the 
ground  as  a  result. 


Mischievous  Energy. 

406.  I  have  shown  you  how  injuries  to  the  suspen- 
sories are  brought  about  by  undue  height  of  either  heel 
separately  or  by  both  high  heels  together.  I  shall  now 
point  out  how  undue  length  or  elevation  or  both  contin- 
gencies, acting  at  the  same  time  upon  the  toe,  are  the 
principal  cause  of  lesions  to  the  perforans.  The  factors 
in  the  problem  are  simple  enough:  1,  obstruction  to 
the  full  and  free  motions  of  the  joints;  2,  peculiarities 
of  action;  3,  the  shape  of  the  foot;  4,  the  nature  of  the 
ground  travelled  upon;  and,  5,  the  rate  of  speed  at 
which  the  horse  is  going.  These  causes  can  all  act 
separately  or  in  combination  with  each  other,  but  sepa- 
rately or  combined  the  point  or  points  from  whence 
these  causes  can  exert  their  greatest  mischievous  energy 
are  at  or  in  the  region  round  about  the  toe. 

Injuries  to  the  Perforatus. 

407.  (See  Fig.  1,  letter  A.)  There  is  a  remarkable 
difference  between  the  structure  and  functions  of  the 
perforatus  and  the  perforans.  The  perforans  has  a 
ligament  to  check  its  action  below  the  knee,  which 
the  perforatus  has  not,  which  shows  that  the  perforans 
has  more  severe  tasks  to  perform  than  the  perforatus. 

The  action  of  the  perforans,  though  mainly  governed 
by  the  will,  appears  to  have  an  automatic  or  involuntary 
function  along  with  the  suspensory  in  preventing  the 
undue  obliquity  of  the  pastern,  whether  at  rest  or  speed ; 
and  the  perforatus  having  no  check  ligament  below  the 
knee,  and  requiring  none  or  it  would  be  present,  has 
evidently  less  severe  tasks  to  perform.     On  this  account 


246  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

it  is  less  liable  to  injuries  or  to  undue  strain  than  either 
the  perforans  or  the  suspensory.  When  in  action  at 
speed,  it  is  the  perforans  that  takes  the  lead  and  has 
the  principal  share  of  the  work  to  be  done. 

The  perforatus,  through  being  situated  at  the  hinder 
part  of  the  leg,  is  exposed  to  various  injuries  such  as 
blows,  kicks,  and  accidents  of  various  sorts.  A  not  un- 
common injury  is  a  heavy  shoe  when  travelling  a  long 
distance,  the  horse  becoming  excessively  fatigued  by 
having  to  flex  his  leg  with  an  undue  and  unnatural  dead 
weight  at  the  end  of  his  foot,  and  the  consequent  inflam- 
mation and  swelling  of  the  sheaths  through  which  the 
perforans  glides  in  its  necessary  movements.  Whenever 
its  functions  become  impaired  by  injuries  to  its  sheaths, 
which  is  common  enough,  dragging  the  toe  is  concomi- 
tant in  this  case  as  well  as  injurious  to  the  perforans. 
When  the  perforatus  is  injured,  the  animal  does  not 
necessarily  point  forward,  but  seeks  relief  by  standing 
with  his  toe  pointed  vertically,  thus  throwing  whatever 
weight  he  may  upon  the  perforans.  As  the  perforatus 
is  the  hindermost  tendon,  swellings  from  its  injuries  al- 
ways appear  at  the  back  of  the  leg,  unlike  the  perforans 
and  the  suspensories,  whose  swellings  appear  at  the  in- 
ner or  outer  aspect  of  the  leg.  Only  in  rare  and  ex- 
ceptional circumstances  does  the  perforatus  become  the 
subject  of  strain. 

408.  (See  Fig.  1,  letter  E.)  What  has  been  said  of 
the  perforatus  with  regard  to  its  liability  to  injuries  on 
account  of  its  external  situation  upon  the  leg  is  equally 
true  of  the  extensor  pedis.  Its  function  is  simply  to 
extend  the  foot  and  keep  the  toe  pointing  upward  while 
the  foot  is  landing  upon  the  ground. 

This  keeping  the  toe  pointing  in  the  right  direction 
till  the  posterior  part  of  the  foot  touches  the  ground  is 
a  function  of  considerable  importance.  It  is  very  easy 
to  suppose  that  without  this  safeguard   the  toe  would 


THE    FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  247 

strike  the  ground  first,  and  stumbling  and  falling  would 
be  very  frequent  consequences.  This  function  of  the 
extensor  shows  why  a  horse  stumbles  less  at  a  fast  gait 
than  at  a  slow  one.  The  faster  he  goes  the  farther  he 
extends  himself,  and  the  longer  the  stride  the  greater 
will  be  the  distance  between  the  ground  and  the  point 
of  the  toe  when  his  heels  first  touch  the  grotind. 

This  simple  fact  of  observation  led  me  to  study  this 
problem  a  little  closer.  In  paragraph  395  I  presented 
my  view  of  the  manner  in  which  the  weight  of  the  ani- 
mal is  transmitted  from  one  structure  to  another  during 
the  stride  at  a  fast  pace.  It  was  shown  that  at  a  critical 
moment  the  whole  of  the  weight  had  to  be  borne  and 
carried  mainly  hy  the  suspensory  and  perforatus  liga- 
ment, in  proof  of  which  it  was  shown  that  immediately 
after  the  heel  landed  the  perforans  became  relaxed,  and 
then  gradually  resumed  its  burden  of  weight  as  the  body 
passed  over  in  the  long  stride.  This  movement  will  be 
better  understood  if  we  view  it  in  the  light  of  the  last- 
named  function  of  the  extensor  pedis.  Until  the  mo- 
ment that  the  heels  touch  the  ground,  the  toe  is  held 
up  by  the  extensor.  The  elevation  of  the  toe  and  the 
tightening  of  the  perforans  are  concurrent ;  and  the  fall- 
ing and  straightening  of  the  toe  are  followed  immedi- 
ately by  a  relaxation  of  the  perforans. 

How  to  Distinguish  an  Injured  Tendon. 

409.  (See  Fig.  1.)  The  pain  and  suffering  caused  by 
injuries  to  the  tendons  and  ligaments,  as  has  been  shown, 
have  symptoms  in  the  manner  of  pointing  the  leg.  It, 
however,  sometimes  happens  that  sprains  of  the  different 
tendons  and  ligaments  take  place,  and  there  being  little 
or  no  discrimination  as  to  the  particular  structure  in- 
volved, the  treatment  must  be  altogether  empirical 
and  uncertain. 


248  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

There  may  be  some  novices  in  diagnosis  among  my 
readers  who  will  appreciate  the  few  plain  directions 
given  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  manipulate  the  structures  at 
the  seat  of  the  injury  by  passing  and  pressing  with 
the  fingers  over  the  affected  part,  both  while  the  foot 
is  on  the  ground  and  while  it  is  flexed.  The  ani- 
mal will  flinch  suddenly  when  you  press  the  injured 
spot. 

It  will  be  well  to  study  the  drawing  of  the  leg  and 
its  tendons  very  attentively.  It  will  be  seen  that  be- 
hind the  upper  half  of  the  cannon  bone  there  are  four 
structures,  two  tendons  and  two  ligaments,  which  are 
liable  to  become  affected  separately  or  together.  They 
are  usually  affected  separately.  The  lower  half  of  the 
cannon  bone  has  but  three  structures  behind  it,  namely, 
the  suspensory  ligament  lying  close  to  the  bone,  the 
perforatus  on  the  outside,  and  the  perforans  between 
the  two.  The  check  ligament  makes  the  fourth  struc- 
ture behind  the  upper  half  of  the  cannon  bone.  The 
usual  seat  of  injury  to  the  check  ligament  is  just  where 
it  joins  with  the  perforans,  and  is  the  result  of  undue 
strain  (see  Fig.  1,  letter  O). 

In  order  to  get  accustomed  to  manipulating  morbid 
structures  intelligently,  the  novice  should  practise  on 
healthy  legs  occasionally.  He  would  not  then  be  so 
likely  to  make  mistakes  when  called  upon  for  a  prompt 
and  correct  diagnosis. 

When  the  leg  is  flexed  these  structures  can  be  readily 
separated  from  each  other  by  judicious  manipulation, 
and  the  injured  one  and  the  injury  readily  discovered ; 
and  if  it  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  suspensory  ligament 
lies  directly  behind  the  cannon  bone,  and  that  the  check 
ligament,  the  perforans,  and  the  perforatus  follow  in  the 
order  they  are  named,  it  will  be  scarcely  possible  to 
make  any  mistake. 


THE   FOOT    OF   THE    HORSE.  249 

Rational  Remedies. 

410.  If  there  be  no  intelligent  appreciation  of  the 
merely  anatomical  arrangement  of  the  structures,  what 
hope  can  there  be  of  a  rational  application  of  the  right 
remedy? 

General  Observations. 

411.  Not  knowing  exactly  how  to  dispose  of  the  fol- 
lowing somewhat  unconnected  observations,  I  present 
them  in  a  group,  hoping  they  will  be  found  not  alto- 
gether destitute  of  food  for  thought  and  reflection  in 
relation  to  the  needs  and  requirements  of  the  horse  in 
modern  civilization. 

Rocker  Shoe  Invaluable. 

412.  Heels  which  have  a  tendency  to  grow  down 
vertically  and  to  project  backward,  resembling  those  in 
Cut  2,  should  especially  be  looked  after  and  kept  down, 
if  you  desire  to  prevent  suffering  to  the  horse  or  loss  of 
the  value  of  his  services  to  yourself.  Such  feet  are 
always  better  for  being  shod  with  shoes  which  rock 
backward.  The  rocker  shoe  is  both  a  preventive  and 
a  cure  for  all  injuries  caused  by  undue  height  of  the 
heels. 

How  to  Prevent  Pain  and  Loss. 

413.  The  simple  ability  to  discern  and  differentiate 
the  effects  produced  by  undue  height  of  the  toe,  or  of 
undue  height  of  the  heels,  upon  only  two  structures  of 
the  leg,  namely,  the  suspensory  ligament  and  the  per- 
forans,  would  prevent  immeasurable  miseries  to  the 
horse  and  enormous  losses  to  all  horse-owners  and 
horse-breeders.  The  ability  to  do  this  implies  the 
ability  to  adjust  the  pedal  and  other  articulations  of  the 


250  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

foot  and  leg,  whereby  the  full  flexing  and  extending 
movements  of  the  leg  are  permitted,  and  by  these 
means  the  horse  could  enjoy  as  much  freedom  of  move- 
ment as  that  enjoyed  by  the  fleshy-ball-footed  animals. 

Prevention  of  Injuries. 

414.  While  the  prevention  of  injuries  to  the  suspen- 
sory ligament  must  be  sought  for  in  the  judicious  lower- 
ing of  the  heels,  the  prevention  of  injuries  to  the  per- 
forans  tendon  must  be  attained  by  lowering  and  short- 
ening the  toe,  and  in  some  cases  by  raising  the  heel. 

Temporary  High  Heel. 

415.  The  temporary  high  heel  causes  a  relaxation  of 
the  perf orans ;  and  the  suspensory  ligament,  its  intimate 
friend  and  neighbor,  helps  it  by  carrying  a  good  part  of 
its  weight  whether  standing  or  travelling. 

Prevention  of  Strain  During  Motion. 

416.  Shortening  and  rounding  of  the  toe  will  always 
prevent  straining  of  the  perforans  while  in  motion  on 
hard  roads. 

The  shoe  best  adapted  to  this  purpose  is  the  rolling- 
motion  shoe,  which  in  thousands  of  instances  during 
the  last  twenty  years  has  been  tried  and  proved  and 
never  found  wanting. 

It  Must  Follow 

417.  That  a  shoe  rocking  both  ways,  that  is,  at  the  toe 
and  heels,  will  prevent  injuries  by  undue  strain  to  both 
the  perforans  and  the  suspensory  ligament.  If  by  any 
means  the  foot  can  be  so  balanced  as  to  cause  these  two 
structures  to  carry  an  equal  share  of  the  weight  at  any 


THE    FOOT    OF    THE    HORSE.  25  I 

or  every  incline  of  the  limb,  our  object  is  gained.  The 
only  instrumentality  by  which  this  has  ever  been,  and  I 
verily  believe  ever  will  be,  accomplished  is  the  centre- 
bearing  shoe. 

Rocking  Movements. 

418.  A  shoe  made  to  rock  both  ways  answers  very 
well  on  hard  roads,  by  rocking  backward  when  the  foot 
lands  upon  the  ground,  and  forward  when  the  foot 
leaves  the  ground.  The  rocking  backward  favors  the 
suspensory  ligament,  and  the  rocking  forward  spares  the 
perforans.  The  majority  of  injuries  happening  to  run- 
ners on  a  hard  track,  I  am  convinced,  is  due  more  to  the 
shape  of  the  foot  than  to  the  hardness  of  the  road.  It 
is  a  very  common  idea  that  hard  roads  are  the  cause  of 
lameness.  It  is  the  unbalanced  foot  that  is  the  cause,  for 
when  a  lame  foot  is  balanced  and  the  centre-bearing 
shoe  affixed  to  it  the  horse  goes  free  from  lameness 
over  the  same  road  almost  instantly,  and  the  harder  the 
road  the  better  he  goes ! 

Eight  Running  Horses. 

419.  I  remember  having  to  shoe  eight  running- 
horses  all  on  the  same  day,  all  of  whom  were  lame  from 
running.  I  shod  them  all  with  light  steel  ball  shoes,  the 
highest  part  of  the  convex  surface  being  but  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  above  the  circumference  of  the  shoe.  Two 
weeks  later  they  were  reported  to  me  all  going  perfectly 
sound  and  free  from  lameness  excepting  one. 

A  Drawback. 

420.  The  centre-bearing  shoe  has  one  drawback,  and 
that  is  that  it  will  not  rock  on  soft  ground — that  is  to 
say,  on  ground  such  as  a  ploughed  field  would  present. 
The  property  that  makes  it  so  valuable  on  hard  ground 


252  THE    FOOT   OF    THE    HORSE. 

renders  it  valueless  on  soft,  deep,  plastic  ground.  Horses 
have  been  shod  with  centre-bearing  shoes  one  inch 
high  in  the  centre  and  have  travelled  without  lameness 
on  the  hardest  of  roads,  and  yet  as  soon  as  they  struck 
soft  ground  which  deprived  the  foot  of  the  power  to  roll 
over  they  went  as  lame  as  ever.  The  explanation  is 
simple  and  the  truth  shall  be  told.  On  hard  roads  when 
the  foot  can  rock  there  is  no  straining  of  the  tendons. 
On  soft  grounds  the  tendons  suffer  strain  and  pain  from 
the  foot  becoming  imbedded  in  the  soil  and  being  de- 
prived of  the  power  to  rock. 

A  Problem  to  be  Solved. 

42 1 .  The  bottom  of  the  foot  is  all  that  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  yet  the  appendage 
to  the  foot  has  never  yet  been  discovered  which  is  per- 
fectly adaptable  to  every  variety  of  surface  over  which 
the  horse  travels. 

On  hard  roads  for  sound  horses,  there  is  no  shoe 
equal  to  a  plate  of  steel  or  iron,  slightly  convex  on  the 
bearing  surface  for  ease  and  safety  to  the  horse. 

An  iron  plate  perfectly  flat,  I  have  read,  is  in  use  by 
some  Eastern  nations.  Slipping  is  said  to  be  the  disad- 
vantage of  this  shoe,  but  apart  from  this  defect  a  flat 
plate  is  as  good  as,  if  not  better  than,  the  common  shoe 
on  hard  roads,  and  decidedly  better  than  the  common 
shoe  on  soft  roads,  inasmuch  as  the  weight  of  the  horse 
is  carried  more  upon  the  centre  of  the  foot  than  it  can 
be  with  a  common  shoe. 

A  flat  plate  shoe  on  ordinary  soft  ground  rocks  nearly 
as  easy  as  a  ball  shoe  on  hard  ground,  by  the  dirt  pack- 
ing into  the  centre  and  spreading  around  the  edges  as 
the  body  passes  over,  and  will  be  easier  for  the  tendons 
and  ligaments  on  deep  soil  than  a  ball  shoe,  for  the 
reasons  already  stated. 


THE   FOOT   OF   THE   HORSE.  253 


A  Cup  Foot 


422.  Shod  with  a  light  running  plate,  if  tender  or 
lame,  travels  best  on  ground  just  soft  or  deep  enough  to 
allow  the  foot  to  rock.  The  heels  sink  into  the  soft 
ground  and  get  supported  in  the  centre ;  the  foot  rolls 
over  to  some  extent,  and  the  toe  beds  itself  into  the 
ground  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  ball  shoe  acts  on 
the  hard  ground.  The  weight  is  carried  on  the  centre 
and  equally  balanced  between  the  two  weight-carrying 
structures,  the  suspensory  ligament  and  the  perforans, 
instead  of  being  jerked  to  and  fro  as  it  were  by  angular 
instead  of  circular  bearings  and  movements. 

A  Splendid  Auxiliary. 

423.  It  will  be  seen  what  a  splendid  mechanical 
auxiliary  the  centre-bearing  shoe  and  its  various  modi- 
fications may  become  in  the  hands  of  a  wise  and  pro- 
gressive veterinarian.  There  is  hardly  an  instance  of  a 
horse  being  lame,  whether  the  cause  be  accidental  or 
arising  from  defective  shoeing,  without  his  receiving 
immediate  benefit  from  the  application  of  this  shoe ;  and 
the  manner  in  which  it  facilitates  the  curative  process  is 
something  unprecedented  in  veterinary  experience. 

Last  Words. 

424.  Surely,  in  the  nature  of  things,  there  must  be 
some  basic  facts,  or  central  principle,  upon  which  a 
truly  rational  system  of  horseshoeing  can  be  built  up 
and  established ;  or  around  which  the  numerous  scat- 
tered and  disjointed  facts  pertaining  to  the  true  economy 
of  the  horse's  foot  may  gravitate  as  to  a  nucleus,  and 
find  a  bond  of  union  and  crystallization  into  a  true  and 


254  THE    FOOT   OF   THE    HORSE. 

perfect  system  of  hygienic  and  therapeutic  horseshoe- 
ing, which  being  in  accordance  with  the  rest  of  nature's 
laws  must  be  as  enduring  as  nature  herself. 

This  book  embodies  the  results  of  my  observations 
and  practical  every-day  experience  in  the  shoeing  of 
sound  and  in  the  treatment  of  lame  horses  for  the  last 
forty-five  years;  and  I  feel  a  sense  of  gratitude  com- 
mingling with  my  feelings  of  pride  and  pleasure  that  I 
am  enabled  to  contribute  something  toward  "  a  consum- 
mation so  devoutly  to  be  wished." 


THE   END. 


INDEX. 


Explanation. — I  have  given  the  principal  subjects  in  the  order  in 
which  they  were  written  preferably  to  giving  them  an  alphabetical  ar- 
rangement. 

Under  the  head-line  of  General  Facts,  Principles,  and  Observations, 
the  subject  of  navicular  disease  will  find  its  place.  This  subject  had 
become  so  interwoven  with  the  facts  and  principles  with  which  it  was 
so  closely  connected  that  I  found  it  impossible  to  draw  a  line  where  the 
subject  of  navicular  disease  could  properly  be  said  to  begin  or  end,  ex- 
cept from  the  first  to  the  last  paragraph  of  the  article. 

But  if  the  reader  perceives  any  disadvantage  in  this  lack  of  arrange- 
ment of  topics,  I  think  he  will  derive  one  advantage  from  it  in  another 
respect. 

The  navicular  disease  has  been  made  the  main  question;  and  as  the 
origin  of  this  disease  is  identical  with  that  of  all  other  diseases  of  the 
foot  and  leg  of  the  horse,  the  elucidation  of  this  question  renders  the 
consideration  of  every  subsequent  topic  a  perfectly  easy  matter. 

Under  the  principal  heading  of  General  Facts,  Principles,  and  Ob- 
servations all  the  paragraph  headings  up  to  154  are  arranged  alphabeti- 
cally. From  that  number  on  the  minor  topics  are  to  be  found,  num- 
bered in  the  order  in  which  they  were  written,  under  the  principal 
headings  which  give  the  names  of  the  diseases  to  which  they  respect- 
ively refer. 


Diseases  Treated  of  in  the  Work. 

PARAGRAPHS 

General  facts,  principles,  and  observations,  including 

navicular  disease 1  to  154 

Spavin, 155  to  185 

Ringbone, 186  to  204 

Splent 205  to  208 

Enlargement  of  heels, 209  to  2  u 

Corn,       .         .        .        .         .        .        .         .        .         .  212  to  227 

Stringhalt, 228  to  244 

Quarter-crack, 245  to  266 

Knuckling 267  to  278 


256 


INDEX. 


Curb 

Sprains  of  back  tendons, 

Windgalls, 

Acute  laminitis, 

Contraction,    . 

Kneesprung,  . 

Cutting  and  interfering, 

Locating  lameness, 

Ligaments  and  tendons  of  the  leg  of  the  horse, 


PARAGRAPHS 

279  to  287 
288  to  292 
293  to  297 
298  to  319 
320  to  353 
354  to  365 
366  to  382 
383  to  400 
401  to  435 


General  Facts,  Principles,  and  Observations,  Including 
Navicular  Disease. 

Anatomy  of  horse's  foot, 
a  little  more, 


Adverse  force,  an,     . 
Ailments  from  too  high  heels 
Analysis  of  pastern  joint, 
Appliance  to  lessen  tension, 

Balance,  .... 

a  perfect,    . 

lack  of, 
Basis  of  facts,    . 
Blocking  the  pedal  joint, 
Bonner,  Mr.  Robert,  and  Dex 


Classes  of  disease,  but  two, 

Centre-bearing  shoe, 

Column  and  base, 

Conflicting  opinions, 

Comparison,  a, 

College  for  horseshoers  suggested, 


er, 


Different  forms  of  feet, 

Disadvantages  of  position  of  fore  legs, 

Diseases  produced  by  a  too  high  toe, 
produced  by  too  high  heels, 
produced  by  the  outside  half  of  the  foot  being  too  high, 
produced  by  the  inside  half  of  the  foot  being  too  high, 

Disproportion  causes  adverse  leverage 


1 
14 

52 

116 

76 

74 

144 
146 

145 
90 
61 

130 


154 
129,132 
69 


119 
141 

27 
38 
63 
148 
149 
148 
126 


INDEX. 


25T 


Disadvantage,  a  horse's  mechanical, 
Discrimination  necessary, 


Effects  of  an  unbalanced  foot, 
Equilibrium  essential, 
Equipoise,  perfect,  necessary, 
Essential  knowledge, 
Examine  thoroughly, 
Exception  to  a  rule, 
Excrescence  of  sole, 
Explanation  of  chart  on  pointing, 
Egregious  mistake,  . 


Foot  constantly  enlarges  by  growth, 

Forms  of  feet,  different,  . 

F'acts,  facts,  facts,     . 

Feet  of  horses  compared  with  those  of  other  animals, 

First  case,  my, 

Flat  feet  and  cup  feet, 

Fleshy-footed  animals  do  not  point, 

Foot  anatomy,  .... 

constantly  enlarging  by  growth, 

the  short  arm  of  a  lever,    . 

diseases  of,  influenced  by  form, 
Fuel  to  fire,  adding, 


Good  thing  to  know,  a,     . 
Growth  destroys  balance, 

Horseshoers'  college  suggested, 

"  Happy-medium"  pastern, 

Hind  limbs  have  greater  facility  for  rest, 

limbs  escape  ills  endured  by  fore  ones, 
How  long  will  a  foot  keep  perfect? 

Indispensable  necessity,  an,    . 

Interesting  problem,  an,  . 

Intimate  connections  of  pedal  bone  and  hoof 


PARAGRAPHS 
123 
70- 


Judgment  and  discrimination  necessary, 
17 


7c 


INDEX. 


Lameness  produced  by  weakness,    . 

Lame  horse  at  grass, 

Law  of  nature,  a, 

Leg  a  lever,  the,        .... 

Level  extension  of  the  foot, 

as  still  water,      .... 
Levelling,  symmetrizing,  and  balancing 
Leverage  power 

upon  the  laminae, 
Line  of  union  of  sole  and  wall, 
Long  strides  and  short  strides, 
Loss  of  power  by  overgrowth  of  hoof, 

Maintains  his  own  balance,  the  horse, 
Many  diseases  produced  by  one  cause, 

ailments,  one  remedy, 
Mechanical  problem,  a,     . 
Missing  link,  a, 
Mobility  of  hock  joint, 


Natural  gauge,  a,    . 

size  of  the  foot,  . 
Nature's  footmark,  . 
Navicular  disease,  causes, 

disease,  flat  feet  exempt  from, 

bone,  ulceration  of,    . 


Opinions,  conflicting, 

Objects  made  alike  perform  alike, 

Oblique  pasterns, 

One  good  turn  deserves  another, 

One  disease  at  a  time, 


Pedal  joint,  the, 

Proper  size  of  the  foot,     . 

balance  important, 
Passing  strange, 
Pastern,  oblique, 

upright,       .... 
Pedal  articulation,     . 

articulation  a  common  hinge, 

bone,  unbalancing  the, 


PARAGRAPHS 

127 

47 

5o 

125 

54 
99 
142 

53 

83 

93 

137 

124 


108 

64 
62 

73 
29 

45 
40 


39. 


86 


86 
9.  75 


28 


118 


101 

97 
42 

89 

28 

70,  77 

117 

66 


2 
122 
13 
85 
77 
78 
49 
22 
21 


INDEX. 


259 


Pendulum,  the  leg  a, 
Perfect  balance,  quick  results 
Perpendicular  heels, 
Points  on  pointing,   . 

and  facts  for  horsemen, 
Pointing  during  motion,  . 

an  instinct, 
Prescription,  a  good, 
Pyramid  of  the  pedal  bone, 


Question  answered,  a,     . 

Quick  results  of  a  perfect  balance, 


Rustication, 

Remedy  for  navicular  disease, 

Relative  advantages  of  position  of  fore  and  hind  legs, 

Relaxation  of  the  flexor  tendons,     . 

Rationale  of  rocking  motion,   . 

Remedy,  the  mechanical, 

Reproduction 

Results  of  overgrowth  of  hoof, 

"  Rheumatoid  diathesis"  of  Professor  Willia: 

diathesis  "  theory  inconclusive, 
Ridges  upon  the  foot,        .... 
Rustication  not  always  beneficial  to  horses, 
"  Respectfully  submitted," 

Symmetrization 

Symmetry,         ...... 

Strides  long  and  short,      .... 

Sacrifices  much  valuable  time, 

Silent  demonstration,        .... 

Size,  proportion  and  symmetry, 

Solid  sole,  the, 

and  spongy  feet,         .... 
Sole,  surplus,    ...... 

Sprain  and  compression 

Spring  colts  and  overgrown  feet,     . 
Straddling  at  grass  and  its  consequences, 
Sticks  of  whalebone,  two, 
Surplus  of  hoof  detrimental,    . 


PARAGRAPHS 
20 

139 
115 

?,IO 

140 

23 
151 
131 

15 


37. 


H3. 


56 
139 

136 

128 

58,  43 

44 

138 

128 

121 

12 

33 

36 

17 

136 

80 

152 
143 
137 

82 
106 

84 

95 
in 

96 

34 
120 

48 
100 

92 


260  INDEX. 

PARAGRAPHS 

Twisting  the  pedal  joint, 153 

Theory,  a  new, 105 

Thoroughbred  horses, 97 

Toeing  in  and  toeing  out,         .         . 11 

Unbalanced  by  accident 107 

Upright  pastern, 78 

Unbalancing  the  pedal  joint,    .        ...        .        .        .        .21 

Villeneuve's  case,  Mr 133 

Weakness  the  cause  of  lameness, 127 

Weight  must  be  carried 41 

Why  and  wherefore,  .         .         ...         .         .         .150 

Williams,  Professor,  on  navicular  diseases,    .         .        32,  60,  103 

Professor,  and  English  notions 60 

Professor,  and  oblique  pasterns 71 

Professor,  respectfully  submitted  to 80 

Wrenching  the  pedal  joint, 24 

Zundel,  Professor,  observations  by, 102 


Spavin, 1 55 

Preliminary  remarks 155 

Origin  of, 156,  160 

A  new  classification  of  foot  diseases,        .         .         .         .158 

The  one-bone  theory 159 

The  hock  joint 161 

Symptoms, 162,  175 

Inherited  forms  of  hock 163 

A  constant  menace  of  danger 164 

Long  and  short  axes, 165 

A  cause  of  spavin, 166 

Another  cause  of  spavin,  .         .         .     •    .         .         .         .167 

Great  weight  carried  by  one  leg 168 

Another  cause  of  spavin 169 

Conformation  a  cause  of  spavin, 170 

Early  bias, 171 

What  I  have  never  seen 172 


INDEX. 


261 


Further  observations  on  spavin, 

Compression  of  bones, 

Symptoms, 

Treatment, 

Shoeing  for  spavin,    . 

Blood-spavin  and  thorotighpin, 

"  Occult"  lameness,    . 

Interesting  experiment,     . 

Treatment  for  all  bone  diseases 

Contracted  tendons,  . 

Coming  events,  . 

An  egregious  mistake, 

An  unwise  practice,  . 

Ringbone,         .... 
Rationale  of  causes,  . 
Locations  of  ringbone, 
High  ringbone,  . 
A  remarkable  fact,     . 
A  serious  mistake, 
Forty-five  years'  experience 
Firing  and  blistering, 
Double  motion,  . 
A  disadvantage, 
Ringbone  more  injurious  than  spavin, 

Heredity 

The  remedy  for  ringbone, 
Percival  and  ringbone, 
Rocker  shoe, 

Ossification  of  articular  cartilage, 
Dangerous  form  of  ringbone 
Anatomical  peculiarities,  . 
Ball-and-socket  joint, 
Anatomy  of  the  joint, 
Treatment, 

Splent 

Causes  of 

Causes  and  effects,     . 
Sudden  unequal  pressure, 
Treatment, 


PARAGRAPHS 
173 


262  INDEX. 

PARAGRAPHS 

Enlargements  of  Heels, 209 

Abnormal  enlargements, 209 

Symptoms,  . 210 

The  remedy 211 

Corn, 212 

General  observations 212 

Corn  and  its  causes .213 

Symptoms  of, 214 

Mr.  Robert  Bonner  and  high  heels,  .         .         ,         .         .215 

Corn  and  contraction 216 

Natural  size  and  the  white  line .217 

Other  causes  of  corn, 218 

A  remarkable  phenomenon 219 

Another  symptom, .         .   220 

The  horseman's  compass,  .         .         .         .         .         .221 

A  morbid  condition  resembling 222 

The  remedy, 223 

Suppurating  corn,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .224 

Treatment  for  severe  cases  of, 225 

Other  contingencies, .   226 

General  treatment, 227 

Stringhalt 228 

Tracing  the  causes, .    228,  233 

A  mysterious  malady, 229 

My  own  observations .  230 

I  and  Professor  Liautard, 231 

Remarkable  resemblance  to 232 

Exploring  for  cause, 233,  228 

My  first  case  of,  in  New  York, 234 

The  worst  case  yet 235 

and  Mr.  Robert  Bonner,    .......  236 

Still  mysterious 237 

Observations  upon, 238 

Symptoms  of  compared  with  those  of  spavin,  .         .         .  239 

Treatment  of, 240 

Mechanism  of  the  hock  joint 241 

A  suddenly  acquired  case  of, •  .  242 

Hock  movements, 243 

Effects  of  snow-balling, 244 


INDEX.  263 

PARAGRAPHS 

Quarter-crack,       .........  245 

How  split  hoof  is  produced, 245 

Professor  Williams  and  split  hoof 246 

"  Come,  let  us  reason  together,"        .....  247 

Rationale  of  split  hoof, 248 

The  treatment  of, 249 

Post-natal  influences,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .250 

Atrophy  of  bone, .251 

Keep  it  down,     . 252 

Subject  not  exhausted, 253 

Front-foot  fissure, -254 

Rationale  of  causes 255 

Intrinsic  causes, 256 

All  for  want  of  balance, 257 

Position  of  pedal  bone,      .......   258 

Leverage  at  the  heels 259 

A  peculiar  form  of  foot,     .......  260 

Concussion, 261 

To  prevent  slipping,  .......   262 

Shoeing  for  front  fissure,  .......   263 

A  solid  foot,        .........   264 

Rationale  of  rocker  shoe,  .......   265 

Professor  Gamgee 266 

Knuckling 267 

Prevention  of,  in  colts,       .......  268 

Retarded  development 269 

Symptoms, .         .  270 

Causes, 273,  271 

Veterinary  surgeons  and  horseshoers 272 

Horseman's  compass,         .......  274 

Oblique  pasterns,        ........  275 

To  prevent, 276 

The  foot  the  essential  part  of  the  horse,  ....  277 

Treatment, 278 

Curb 279 

Limits  of  endurance, 280 

Deranged  machinery,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .281 

A  fertile  region,  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .282 

A  fixed  fact 283 


264 


INDEX. 


Curb  varies, 

Curby  hock, 

Curby  hock  and  sickle  hock, 

Characteristics  of  pointing, 

Sprain  of  back  tendons, 

Various  effects,,  one  cause, 
The  pointing  compass, 
The  centre-bearing  shoe, 
Treatment  of  sprains, 
Racers  and  trotters,    . 

"WlNDGALLS, 

Treatment, 

Ear-marks  of  the  family, 
Mr.  Quintal's  case,     . 
Originating  causes,    . 

Acute  laminitis, 

General  observations, 

Causes  of,   . 

The  cause  of  causes, . 

Area  of  laminated  structures, 

Observations  wise  or  otherwise 

Bootmaker  and  cobbler,     . 

A  valuable  suggestion, 

Other  causes  of, 

Bony  and  fleshy  enlargement 

The  reason  why, 

Symptom  of,       . 

The  remedy  for, 

Centre-bearing  philosophy, 

Sideway  movements, 

Broad's  laminitis  shoe, 

Seedy  toe,  .... 

Shoeing  for  seedy  toe, 

Pumice  foot, 

A  comparison,    ... 

The  most  important  consideration 

The  happy  medium,  . 

Concluding  observations: 


PARAGRAPHS 
284 
285 


INDEX.  265 

PARAGRAPHS 

Contraction, 320 

General  observations, 320 

Effects  of,  .         .         .         .         .  .   .         .         .         .321 

Causes  of 322 

Favoring  the  feet,      ........   323 

Narrow  feet  increase  leverage, 324 

Type  of  contraction,  No.  1,        .....         .   325 

Type  of  contraction,  No.  2,        .....         .   326 

Type  of  contraction,  No.  3 340 

Type  of  contraction,  No.  4,       .....         .   342 

Overweighting,  ........   327 

Mechanical  expansion,        .......   328 

Dexter's  pedal  bone,  .......  329 

No  remedy,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .341 

The  problem  solved, ........   343 

A  digression,      .........   344 

A  growing  hoof  a  growing  evil, 345 

Remove  excrescences,        .......   346 

Penalty  of  neglect .         .   347 

Another  cause  of,       .......         .   348 

Ridges  on  the  wall,    ........   349 

Mechanical  expansion,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .   350 

General  principles  of  treatment 351 

Expander  all  the  time 352 

First  and  last  cause, 353 

Kneespring 354 

Causes 355 

and  straight  hock,       . 356 

Straight  hock  and  calf  knee, 357 

and  knuckling 358 

Symptoms,  . 359 

Lateral  balance, 360 

Complicated  causes 361 

The  remedy, 362 

Sloping  stalls 363 

Cutting  and  interfering, 

Horseman's  compass, 364 

Articulations, 365 

Pointing, 366 


266 


INDEX. 


PARAGRAPHS 


Examine  the  foot, 
Form  and  interfering, 
Shoefly  shoe, 
Modes  of  interfering, 
An  erroneous  idea,     . 
Most  speed  most  danger, 
The  standard  shoe,     . 
General  maxims, 
Ball-and-socket  joint, 
Natural  conformation, 
Cutting  at  speed, 
Another  cause,  . 
Hitching,    . 
Forging,      . 
Shoeing  for  forging,  . 
Extreme  case  of  forging, 


Lameness  of  horses — how  to  locate 
General  observations, 
The  language  of  motion,   . 
Elastic  movements,    . 
Must  keep  time, 
See-saw  motion, 
Diagonal  lameness,    . 
Exceptions  to  the  rule, 
Least  of  two  evils, 
Trotter  and  pacer, 
Lameness  with  pointing,  . 
Absolute  symptoms,  . 
Lameness  without  pain,     . 
Anchylosis, 

Lameness  from  loss  of  balance 
Do  the  best  you  can, 
One  more  lesson, 
Unfailing  signs, 
First  and  last  words, 

Tendons  and  ligaments  of  the  leg, 
The  suspensory  ligament, 
The  perforans  tendon, 
The  perforatus  tendon, 


INDEX.  267 

PARAGRAPHS 

The  extensor  pedis 4°4 

Functions  of 4°5 

Rationale  of  movements, 4°6 

Transmission  of  weight, 4°7 

The  reason  why, 4°8 

Normal  and  abnormal  conditions 4°9 

The  ultimate  link, 4 10 

Fair  deductions, 411 

Critical  junctures,      . 412 

Injuries  to  suspensory 4' 3 

Predisposing  causes,  .         . 4*4 

Hard  and  soft  roads 4*5 

Injuries  to  the  perforans, 4*6 

Mischievous  energy, 4*7 

Injuries  to  the  perforatus 4*8 

Injuries  to  the  extensor, 4*9 

How  to  distinguish  an  injured  tendon  or  ligament,         .  420 

Rational  remedies 42 1 

General  observations,         . 422 

Rocker  shoe  invaluable,     .         .         .         •         •         •         -423 

How  to  prevent  pain  and  loss, 424 

Prevention  of  injuries, 425 

Temporary  high  heel, 426 

Prevention  of  strain  during  motion,  ....  427 

It  must  follow, 428 

Rocking  movement,  ....••••  429 

Eight  running  horses, 43° 

A  drawback, 43 l 

A  problem  to  be  solved, 432 

A  cup  foot 433 

A  splendid  auxiliary,         ...,•••  434 
Last  words 435 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EACH   SHOE. 

The  centre-bearing  shoe  (Cut  42)  is  represented  by  the  sec- 
tion of  a  globe  which  may  be  from  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter, 
the  depth  of  the  curve  varying  from  one-eighth  to  one  inch. 

The  half-ball  (Cut  19).  This  form  is  best  understood  by  sup- 
posing the  full  centre-bearing  shoe  to  have  a  slice  taken  off  it  at 
any  depth,  which  would  leave  a  hole  in  the  centre  and  give  a 
bearing  on  the  circumference  of  the  hole  so  formed. 

The  central  bar  (Cut  24).  The  basis  of  this  shoe  is  a  common 
bar  shoe.  A  flat  bar  of  steel  three-fourths  to  one  inch  wide,  and 
of  sufficient  thickness  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  animal,  is  first 
given  the  required  curvature,  and  is  then  to  be  welded  over  the 
centre  of  the  shoe,  that  is,  if  the  foot  is  regular  in  circumference ;. 
but  if  the  foot  is  otherwise,  the  central  bar  must  be  welded  to 
the  shoe  so  that  the  foot  may  be  balanced  rather  than  the  shoe. 
The  central  bar  in  other  words  should  be  in  a  direct  line  with  the 
axis  of  bearing  of  the  limb— let  the  point  of  the  toe  be  where  it 
will.  This  shoe  will  be  the  substitute  for  the  centre-bearing  or 
ball  shoe  on  all  occasions,  as  it  prevents  slipping. 

The  common  four-calk  front  shoe  describes  itself  (Cut  20).  It 
works  like  the  rolling-motion  shoe  and  prevents  slipping. 

The  common  four-calk  hind  shoe  (Cut  28)  for  curb,  and  pre- 
vents strains  of  back  tendons. 

Rolling-motion  shoe  (Cut  29).  This  shoe  is  thicker  at  the  heel 
than  at  the  toe;  the  toe  portion  is  curved  and  the  heel  uncurved, 
for  horses  when  pointing  forward. 

Rocking  shoe,  for  horses  high  at  the  heels  (Cut  21),  for  corn. 

Four-calk  shoe  for  spavin  (Cut  18).  For  stringhalt  or  spavin 
the  inside  calk  is  set  back  to  allow  the  toe  to  fall  in  an  inward 
direction. 

Rocking  bar  shoe,  one  heel  cut  off  for  corns  (Cut  22). 

Dexter's  pedal  bone  (Cut  31). 

Profile  view  Dexter's  pedal  bone  (Cut  31). 

Drawing  of  a  contracted  foot  (Cut  33). 

Drawing  of  a  perfect  foot  (Cut  34). 


ILLUSTRATIONS   OF    EACH    SHOE.  269 

Wing  of  pedal  bone  atrophied  (Cut  41). 

Line  of  flexion  of  hind  leg  shod  with  high  or  low  heels  (Cut  25). 

Half-ball  shoe  with  four  calks  (Cut  44).  This  modification  of 
the  centre-bearing  is  an  important  one,  as  it  prevents  slipping. 
A  horse  with  this  shoe,  whether  sound  or  lame,  will  travel  better 
on  the  road  at  all  gaits  and  rates  of  speed.  I  have  known  of 
many  tender-footed  and  sound  horses  having  their  speed  im- 
proved by  the  use  of  this  shoe,  and  I  have  no  doubt  when  this 
style  of  shoe  can  be  made  lighter  that  it  will  be  a  most  important 
factor  in  the  development  of  speed. 

Bar  shoe  for  front-foot  fissure  (Cut  26). 

Rocker  shoe  made  by  welding  calks  two-thirds  of  the  shoe's 
length,  beginning  at  the  heel  (Cut  23). 

Grab  shoe  (Cut  30).  The  outer  edge  of  the  shoe  to  be  of  one 
even  thickness  all  the  way  round,  but  scooped  at  the  toe  from 
the  outer  edge  to  the  inside  edge  down  to  a  thin  edge. 

Flat  shoefly — bevelled  at  the  outside  toe  to  allow  the  foot  to 
rock  outwardly  to  prevent  interfering  (Cut  35). 

Front  four-calk  shoefly,  to  prevent  interfering  and  slipping 
(Cut  36). 

Common  shoe  with  toe  calk  for  heavy  slow  horses,  to  prevent 
hitting  or  interfering,  same  as  shoefly  (Cut  37). 

Pivot  shoe  for  a  club  foot  or  bad  ringbone  (Cut  39). 

Movable  pivot  to  apply  to  the  heel  of  a  shoe  to  give  a  horse 
rest  to  his  tendons  while  standing  in  the  stable  (Cut  40). 

It  will  be  instructive  to  contrast  the  effects  of  the  two  forms 
of  hoof  represented  in  Figs.  2  and  5.  One  has  a  convex  and  the 
other  a  concave  outline  on  the  front  surface.  I  have  seen  horses 
whose  hoofs  have  curved  inwardly  half  an  inch,  and  some  out- 
wardly the  same  distance  from  the  straight  line.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  normal  distance  of  the  laminated  structures  is  at 
an  equal  distance  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  wall,  whether 
curved  inwardly  or  outwardly,  so  that  it  is  possible  for  the  points 
of  the  toes  of  the  pedal  bones  in  those  cases  to  vary  to  the  extent 
of  an  inch  or  more  in  height.  It  is  a  fact  that  navicular  disease 
is  a/ways  the  attendant  of  the  elevated  toe  and  never  of  the  ele- 
vated heel ;  pointing  clearly  to  the  natural  and  necessary  con- 
nection between  high-toe  and  navicular  disease. 


.S2 


.o5* 


5  ~  o< 


2  ?  h 


o 

Si  » 


1 

c 

H 

Apex  o 
Corona 
Pedal  1 
Pedal  j 
Centre 
toe  an 
Natura 
.  Afoot 

-.  —     ~     ■-     i,           =+H     ?C 

C  y  i, 

*§J|J 

^  B  i 


f  ©  2  n  .«j  s  s 


o  „ 
o  5 


o"©.§>£ 


No.  3  shows  the  toe  of  the  pedal  bone  c 
downward  by  too  high  heels. 


NO.  «. 

No.  4  shows  the  toe  of  the  pedal  bone  c  too  elevated  by 
too  much  hoof  left  at  the  toe  h. 


This  cut  shows  the  toe  of   the  pedal   bone  c  raised  by 
an  extra  growth  of  hoof  at  the  toe,  tig.  h. 


NO.  6. 

This  cut  shows  a  difference  in  height  between  heels  and  toe 
on  account  of  the  grain  of  the  hoof  growing  horizontally 
at  the  heels  and  vertical  at  the  toe. 


NO.   7. 

This  cut  shows  the  uniformity  of  the  ridges 
circumscribing  th  i  foot  by  an  even 
growth  of  hoof. 


A  chart  showing  that  a  horse  points  to  these  eight 
directions  to  find  relief ,  caused  by  extra  height  of 
hoof  at  either  one  of  those  figures. 


NO.  10. 

This  cut  is  to  show  that  the  strain  of  the  perforans  depends  on 
the  distance  between  its  insertion  at  K  to  the  prop  line  or 
apex  at  a. 


This  cut  is  to  show  that  obliquity 
of  the  pastern  depends  on  the 
l)ii lance  of  the  hoof  and  that 
raising  the  heels  causes  its  ob- 
liquity and  vice  versa. 


NO.   12. 

Cut  12  shows  a  natural  cause  for  kneespron 
by  an  oblique  pastern 


NO.  13. 

This  cut  is  to  prove  that  the  hock 
depends  more  or  less  on  the  obliqui- 
ty of  the  pastern  for  its  angle  :  that 
is,  oblique  pastern  causes  a  straight 
hock,  and  vice  versa. 


This  shows  that  high  heels 
has  caused  the  leg  to 
point  back  of  a  vertical 
line  from  the  point  of 
the  shoulder. 


NO.  15a. 

A  hoof  contracted  on  one-half 
only.  Make  that  side  of  the 
pedal  hone  the  highest. 


\  hoof  becoming  oblong  by 
contraction. 


W/AfG 


NO.  17. 

A  hoof  contracted  at  both  heels. 


This  shows  that  a  well-bal- 
anced foot  causes  the  leg 
to  stand  vertical. 


NO.   16. 

This   shows  that  an  extra 

high  toe  causes  the  horse 
to  point  in  front  of  a 
vertical  line  drawn  from 
the  shoulder. 


NO.    18. 

A  hoof  contracted  al  one  heel  only. 


These  Shoes  were  Patented  in  1869  and  1870   in   the   United   States— the 
Centre-bearing  Shoe  in  Canada,  England,  France  and  Belgium. 


A  four-calk  shoe  for  a  spavin.     The  inside  calk  set  further 
back  than  the  outside  calk. 


NO.   19. 

A  half-ball  shoe. 


Side  view, 


NO.  19. 

A  half  ball  shoe  witho  it  calk. 


NO.    1!». 

A  half  ball  shoe  with  a  centre 
piece  welded  near  the  centre, 
to  cause  it  to  wear  and  to  rock 
easily  also. 


NO.  21.  NO.  31. 

A  rocking  shoe  thinner  at  both  heels  and  toe.   Called  a  rocker. 


NO.  22. 

A  rocking  bar  shoe  for  corns 


A  rocking  shoe  made  by  welding  the 
calk  on  each  side. 


SO.  24.  XO.  24. 

A  centre-bar  shoe  to  replace  a  centre-bearing  or  ball  shoe. 


A  shoe  with  the  calks  set  one  inch  from  the  points  of  the 
heels, 


NO.  26. 


NO.     8.  NO.  38. 

A  common   four-calk   hind    shoe  for  curbed  or  swelled 

tendons. 


NO.  39.  NO.  39. 

A  rolling   motion,  shoe   rolled  at  the  toe  only,  for  nevaculer 
disease  or  for  a  horse  pointing. 


NO.  .}0.  NO.  30. 

V  grab  shot — a  shoe  made  to  roll,  while    it  prevents  slipping. 


View  of   the  bottom  of  the  D?xter  pedal 
bone,  with  one  contracted  winp. 


A.  shoe  with  the  toe  set  on  the  bias  to  pre- 
vent cutting.     Set  full  on  the  inside, 


Side  view. 


NO.  33. 

A  profile  view  of  Dexter's  foot  or  pedal  bone. 


NO.  33. 

A  foot  lief  ore  expanded. 


NO.  34. 

A  perfect  foot  after  expanded. 


NO.  35.  NO.  35. 

A  shoe  rolled  on  the  outside  toe  to  prevent  cutting 
called  shoe-fly. 


A  four-calk  shoe  to  prevent  cutting.     The  outside  toe  calk  set. 
back  of  the  inside  one  in  place  of  No.  35  shop 


A  centre-bearing  shoe  for  a  club-foot 
for  lamenetes, 


A  movable  pivot  attached  to  the  shoe,  A  pivot 

for  to  rest  the  tendons  while  standing. 


Side  view, 


NO.  4-1. 

A  pedal  bone,  with  one  contracted  wing. 


NO.  42. 


m 


A  shoe  made  like  a  half   ball,  rocking   in   all  directions, 
Called  a  ball  shoe  or  centre-bearing  shoe. 


A  sboe  made  half -ball  with  calk 
to  prevent  slipping. 


A  half -ball  with- 
out calks. 


WILLIAM   R.  JENKINS* 

Veterinary  Books, 


1899. 


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(")DUN.  "Veterinary  Medicines."  By  Finlay  Dun, 
V.  S.  A  new  revised  and  enlarged  English  edition 
(almost  entirely  re- written),  8vo,  cloth 3  50 

"  What  more  can  be  said  than  has  already  been  said  of 
a  book  which  has  been  for  years  not  only  the  classical  book 
for  students,  but  the  standard  work  of  reference  for  prac- 
titioners ?  That  this  edition  has  been  revised  and  so  con- 
siderably enlarged.as  to  bring  it  quite  up  to  the  dimensions 
of  modern  therapeutics. is  well  evinced  by  the  arrangement 
of  the  volume.  *  *  *  Dun's 'Veterinary  Medicine' will, 
for  years  to  come,  continue  to  be  the  authority  par  excel- 
lence of  its  kind  in  the  English  language—  Am.  Vet. Review. 


Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


DWYER.  '« Seats  and  Saddles."  Bits  and  Bitting, 
Draught  and  Harness  and  the  Prevention  and  Cure  of 
Restiveness  in  Horses.  By  Francis  Dwyer.  Illus- 
trated.    1  vol.,  12mo,  cloth,  gilt 1  50 


('•)FLEMING.  "Veterinary  Obstetrics."  Including  the 
Accidents  and  Diseases  incident  to  Pregnancy,  Parturi- 
tion, and  the  early  Age  in  Domesticated  Animals. 
By  Geo.  Fleming,  F.R.C.V.S.  With  212  illustrations. 
New  edition  revised,  226 illustrations,  758  pages.  ..6  25 
773  pages,8vo,  cloth  (old  edition) 3  50 

—  "Rabies  and    Hydrophobia."     History.    Natural   Causes, 

Symptoms  and    Prevention.        By    Geo.      Fleming, 
M.  R.C.V.S.    8vo,  cloth 3  75 

—  "Tuberculosis."     From  a  Sanitary   and  Pathological  Point 

of  View 25 

—  "  The      Contagious      Diseases      of      Animals."         Their 

influence    on    the   wealth    and    health    of    nations. 
12mo,  paper 25 

—  "Operative     Veterinary    Surgery."         Part    I,    by    Dr. 

Geo.  Fleming,  M.R.C.V.S.  This  valuable  work, 
the  most  practical  treatise  yet  issued  on  the 
subject  in  the  English  language,  is  devoted  to  the 
common  operations  of  Veterinary  Surgery;  and  the 
concise  descriptions  and  directions  of  the  text  are  illus- 
trated with  numerous  wood  engravings.  8vo,cloth.2  75 
Second  volume  in  preparation. 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48th  St.),  New  York. 


Human     and      Animal       Variola;."         A      Study     in 
Comparative  Pathology.      Paper 25 


Animal  Plagues."  Their  History,  Nature,  and 
Prevention.  By  George  Fleming,  F.  K.  C.  V.  S.,  etc. 
First  Series.  8vo,  cloth,  $6.00;  Second  Series. 
8vo,  cloth 3  00 


Roaring  in  Horses."  By  Dr.  George  Fleming, 
F.R  C.V.S.  A  treatise  on  this  peculiar  disorder 
of  the  Horse,  indicating  its  method  of  treatment 
and  curability.    8vo,  cloth,  with  col.  plates 1  50 


FLEMING-NEUMANN.  "Parasites  and  Parasitic 
Diseases  of  the  Domesticated  Animals."  A  work 
which  the  students  of  human  or  veterinary  medi- 
cine, the  sanitarian,  agriculturist  or  breeder  or  rearer 
of  animals,  may  refer  for  full  information  regarding 
the  external  and  internal  Parasites— vegetable  and 
animal — which  attack  various  species  of  Domestic 
Animals.  A  Treatise  by  L.  G.  Neumann,  Professor 
at  the  National  Veterinary  School  of  Toulouse. 
Translated  and  edited  by  George  Fleming,  C,  B.,  L.L. 
D.,F.R.O.V.S.    873  pages,  365  illustrations,  cloth.7  50 


GRESSWELL.  "The  Diseases  and  Disorders  of  the 
Ox."  By  George  Gresswell,  B.A.  With  Notes  by 
James  B.  Gresswell.    Crown,  8vo,  cloth,  illus 3  50 


Diseases  and  Disorders  of  the  Horse."  By  Albert, 
James  B.,  and  George  Gresswell.  Crown,  8vo,  illus- 
trated, cloth 1  75 


Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


GRESSWELL.  Manual  of  "The  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Equine  Medicine."  By  J.  B.  Gresswell,  F.R  C.V.S., 
and  Albert  Gresswell,  M.R.C.V.S.,  second  edition, 
enlarged,  8vo,  cloth 2  75 

—  "  Veterinary      Pharmacology      and      Therapeutics."     By 

James  B.  Gresswell,  F.R.C.V.S.     16mo,  cloth  . .  .1  50 

—  "  The    Bovine    Prescriber."     For    the    use    of     Veterina- 

rians and  Veterinary  Students.  By  James  B.  and 
Albert  Gresswell,  M.R.C.V.S    Cloth 75 

—  "The  Equine    Hospital   Prescriber."     Drawn   up   for  the 

use  of  Veterinary  Practitioners  and  Students.  By 
Drs.  James  B.  and  Albert  Gresswell,  M.R.C.V.S. 
Cloth 75 

—  "Veterinary     Pharmacopeia,      Materia       Medica       and 

Therapeutics."  By  George  and  Charles  Gresswell, 
with  descriptions  and  physiological  actions  of  medi- 
cines. By  Albert  Gresswell.  Crown, 8vo,cl . .  2  75 

GOTTHEIL.        "A      Manual     of    General     Histology." 

By  Wm.  S.  Gottheil,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Pathology  in 
the  American  Veterinary  College,  New  York;  etc.,  etc. 
Histology  is  the  basis  of  the  physician's  art,  as 
Anatomy  is  the  foundation  of  the  surgeon's  science. 
Only  by  knowing  the  processes  of  life  can  we  under- 
stand the  changes  of  disease  and  the  action  of  remedies ; 
as  the  architect  must  know  his  building  materials,  so 
must  the  practitioner  of  medicine  know  the  intimate 
structure  of  the  body.  To  present  this  knowledge  in 
an  accessible  and  simple  form  has  been  the  author's 
task.     8vo...  cloth,  148  pages,  fully  illustrated. . .  1  00 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48th  St.),  New  York. 


(*  )HASSLOCH.     "A    Compend    of    Veterinary   Materia 
Medica  and  Therapeutics."    By  Dr.  A.  C.  Hassloch, 

V.S.,  Lecturer  on  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics, 
and  Professor  of  Veterinary  Dentistry  at  the  NewYork 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons  and  School  of  Compa- 
rative Medicine,  N.  Y.     12mo,  cloth,  225  pages  .  .1  50 


{'*)HEATLEY.  "The     Stock     Owner's     Guide."       A 

handy  Medical  Treatise  for  every  man  who  owns  an 
oxorcow.  By  George  S.  Heatley,  M.R.C.V.  12mo, 
cloth 1  25 


—  "The   Horse   Owner's   Safeguard."       A    handy   Medical 

Guide  for  every  Horse  Owner.     12mo,  cloth 1  50 

—  "  Practical  Veterinary  Remedies."  12mo,  cloth 1  00 


HILL.      "The   Principles    and   Practice   of  Bovine   Med- 
icine and  Surgery."    By  J.  Woodroffe  Hill,  F.R.C.  V.S. 
Cloth.     (Temporarily  out  of  print). 
(We  have  one  copy  of  this  work  that  can  be  had  for 

$15.00.) 


HILL.    "The   Management    and    Diseases    of    the    Dog." 

Containing  full  instructions  for  Breeding,  Rearing  and 
Kenneling  Dogs.  Their  Different  Diseases.  How  to 
detect  and  how  to  cure  them.  Their  Medicines,  and 
the  doses  in  which  they  can  be  safely  administered. 
By  J.  Woodroffe  Hill,  F.R.C.V.S.  12mo,  cloth,  extra 
fully  illustrated 2  00 


l£  Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


IIINEBAUCH.      "Veterinary     Dental     Surgery."       For 

the    use    of  Students,   Practitioners  and   Stockmen. 

12rao,  cloth,  illustrated 2  00 

Sheep 2  75 


HO  ARE.  "A  Manual  of  Veterinary  Therapeutics  and 
Pharmacology."  By  E.  Wallis  Hoare,  F.R.C.V.S. 
12mo,  cloth,  560  pages 2  75 

"Deserves  a  good  place  in  the  libraries  of  all  veterina- 
rians. *  *  *  Cannot  help  but  be  of  the  greatest  assist- 
ance to  the  young  veterinarian  and  the  every  day  busy 
practitioner."— American  Veterinary  Review. 


{*)  HUNTING.  The  Art  of  Horse-shoeing.  A  manual 
lor  Farriers.  By  William  Hunting,  F.E.C.V.S.,  edi- 
tor of  the  Veterinary  Record,  ex-president  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons.  8vo,  cloth,  with 
nearly  100  illustrations 1  00 


('*)  ROBERT.  "Practical  Toxicology  for  Physicians 
and  Students."  By  Prof.  Dr.  Rudolph  Robert, 
Medical  Director  of  Dr.  Brehmer's  Sanitarium  for 
Pulmonary  Diseases  at  Goerbersdorf  in  Silesia  (Prus- 
sia), late  Director  of  the  Pharmacological  Institute, 
Dorpat,  Russia.  Translated  and  edited  by  L.  H. 
Friedburg,  Ph.  D.  Authorized  Edition. 
8vo,  cloth 2  50 


d51-M53  Sixth  Avenue  {cor.  48th  St.),  New  York.  13 


KOCH.     "Miology  of  Tuberculosis."     By  Dr.  R.  Koch. 
Translated  by  T.  Saure.     8vo,  cloth 1  00 


KEATING.  "A  New  Unabridged  Pronouncing 
Dictionary  of  Medicine."  By  John  M.  Keating,  M.D., 
LL.D.,  Henry  Hamilton  and  others.  A  voluminous 
and  exhaustive  hand-book  of  Medical  and  scientific 
terminology  with  Phonetic  Pronunciation,  Accentu- 
ation, Etymology,  etc.  With  an  appendix  containing 
important  tables  of  Bacilli,  Microcci  Leucomaines, 
Ptomaines ;  Drugs  and  Materials  used  in  Antiseptic 
Surgery;  Poisons  and  their  antidotes;  Weights  and 
Measures ;  Themometer  Scales ;  New  Officinal  and 
TJnofficinal  Drugs,  etc.,  etc.     8vo,  818  pages 5  00 


LAMBERT.       "The      Germ     Theory       of      Disease." 

Bearing  upon  the  health  and  welfare  of  man  and  the 
domesticated  animals.  By  James  Lambert,  F.R.C.V.S. 
8vo.  paper -25 


LAW.  "Farmers'  Veterinary  Adviser."  A  Guide  to 
the  Prevention  and  Treatment  of  Disease  in  Domestic 
Animals.  By  Professor  James  Law.  Illustrated.  8vo, 
cloth .8  00 

(')LEGGE.  "Cattle  Tuberculosis."  A  Practical  Guide 
to  the  Farmer,  Butcher  and  Meat  Inspector.  By  T.M. 
Legge,  M.A.,  M.D.,  D.P.H.,  Secretary  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  Tuherculosis,  180G-98 ;  author  of 
"  Public  Health  in  European  Capitals,"  and  "  Harold 
Sessions,  F.R.C.V.S."    Cloth 1  00 


14  Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


(**)  LI  A  JJTARD.  "Median  Neurotomy  in  the  Treatment  of 
Chronic  Tendinitis  and  Periostosis  of  the  Fetlock." 

By  0.  Pellerin,  late  Repetitor  of  Clinic  and  Surgery  to 
the  Alfort  Veterinary  School.  Translated  with  addi- 
tional facts  relating  to  it,  by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M.D., 
V.M. 

Having  rendered  good  results  when  performed  by 
himself,  the  author  believes  the  operation,  which 
consists  in  dividing  the  cubito-plantar  nerve  and  in 
excising  a  portion  of  the  peripherical  end,  the  mean? 
of  improving  the  conditions,  and  consequently  th^ 
values  of  many  apparently  doomed  animals.  Agricul- 
ture in  particular  will  be  benefited. 

The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  covers 
the  study  of  Median  Neurotomy  itself;  the  second, 
the  exact  relations  of  the  facts  as  observed  by  the 
author.       8vo.,  boards 1  00 


(**)—  "Manual  of  Operative  Veterinary  Surgery"  By  A. 
Liautard,  M.D.,  V.M.,  Principal  and  Professor  of 
Anatomy,  Surgery,  Sanitary  Medicine  and  Juris- 
prudence in  the  American  Veterinary  College; 
Chevalier  du  Merite  Agricole  de  France,  Honoiary 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons 
(London),  etc.,  etc.  8vo,  cloth,  786  pages  and  nearly 
600  illustrations 6  00 


"Animal  Castration."  A  concise  and  practical  Treatise 
on  the  Castration  of  the  Domestic  Animals.  The 
only  work  on  the  subject  in  the  English  language. 
Illustrated  with  forty-four  cuts.      12mo,  cloth ...  2  00 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  18th  St.),  Neiv  York.  15 

(**)  "Vade  Mecnm  of  Equine  Anatomy."  By  A.  Liautard, 
M.D.V.S.  Dean  of  the  American  Veterinary  College. 
12mo.  cloth.     New  edition,  with  illustrations. . .  .2  00 

—  "  Translation      of    Zundel     on     the     Horse's     Foot." 

Cloth 2  00 

—  "  How  to  TeU   the   Age   of  the  Domestic  Animal."    Bj 

Dr.  A.  Liautard,    M.D.,  V.S.      Profusely  illustrated. 
12mo,  cloth 50 

—  "On    the    Lameness     of    Horses."     By    A.    Liautard, 

M.D.,V.S ..2  50 

See  also  "CadioVs  Surgery." 

(*)— "  A  Treatise  on  Veterinary  Therapeutics  of  the  Domestic 
Animals."    (See  Cadiot.) 

LONG.  "Book  of  the  Pig."  Its  selection,  Breeding, 
Feeding  and  Management.    8vo,  cloth 4  2fi 

(**)LOWE.  "Breeding  Racehorses  hy  the  Figure 
System."  Compiled  by  the  late  C.  Bruce  Lowe. 
Edited  by  William  Allison,  "  The  Special  Commis- 
sioner," London  Sportsman,  Hon.  Secretary  Sporting 
League,  and  Manager  of  the  International  Horse 
Agency  and  Exchange.  With  numerous  fine  illustra- 
tions of  celebrated  horses.     Quarto,  cloth 7  50 

(**)LUPTOjSr.  "Horses:  Sound  and  Unsound,"  with 
Law  relating  to  Sales  and  Warranty.  By  J.  Irvine 
Lupton,  F.R.C.V.S.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated 1  25 


1$  Timam  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


Hwse."       A  and    as     be 

Ought  to  Be.      By  J.  L  Lapton,  P.B.C.V.S.    Ulas- 

1  40 


HAGXER.     * Facte  Tor  B#ne  Owner-.' 

■ding 7  5" 


MJLYHEW.        -The    Illustrated    Hur^e    Hotter."      An 

at  of  the  Various  Diseases 

ththe 

latest  mode  of  Treatment,  and  all  the  Requisite  Pre. 

ptioN  written  in  plain  English.    By  E.    Edward 

Entirely   new 
2  75 


H'liJlIljE.         '-Anatomical     Outline-     of    the     Horse." 

1  50 


fc  C  OMJiU:.    Cattle  and  tattle  Breedei  .  l  ^yj 


WFAIiYRAS.       "Anatomr    of    the    Horse."      A     Df*. 

U  B  'J.V.S. 

t  moiit 

■ 
5  M 


Sa  Sixth  Avenu*  few.  4S*A  Sr.\  AVw  }  orfc. 


Comparatire    Anatomy    of     the     Domtstwated       Ani- 
mals."   By  J.  JTFadyean.       Profusely  illus: 
and  to  be  issued  in  two  parts.     Part  I— Osteology, 
ready.  <Part  II.  in  preparation.)  Paper. 2.50;  cloth. 3.T5 


MILLS.    "How  to     Keep     a     Do*     in     tae    City."     By 

Wesley  Mills.  M.P  .  V.S.  I:  talis  \.oose, 
manage,  house,  toed,  educate  the  pup.  how  to  keep  him 
clean  and  teach  him  cleanliness.    Paper 35 


.*•  MTOl  1  RJR.         Operatic      Vterinary     Surxvn 

Professor  Dr.  H.  M  oiler,  Berlin.  Translated  and 
edited  from  the  3d  edition,  enlarged  and  Improved, 
by  John    A.  W.  Dollar.  M.K.C.S. 

Prof.   Moller's  work  presents  the  most  recent  and 
complete  exposition  of  the  Principles  and  Frao: 
W.er  •  \\r.\  Sotgary,  and  is  the  $tanckii\l  text-book  oh  the 
subject  throughout  tiermanji. 

subjects  ignored   iu   previous    tre<v 
Veterinary  Surgery  here  receive  full  consideration, 
while  the  V  arc  presented  under  new  and 

suggest  i\o  asp, 

\-    I'rof.    Moller's  woik  represents  not    only   his 
own    opinions    and    practice,  but    those  of  the  best 
\oto.-.'..ir\  SuigOO&SOt  various  oountrios,  the  trans- 
l.mon  cannot  fall  to  be  of  signal  service  to  At.  . 
and  British   Veterinarians  and  to  Students  of  \ 
Inary  and  Comparative  Surgery. 
1   vol..  to.     m  pages.   L41  illusttations  ...     . 


18  Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


MORETON.    "  On  Horse-breaking."    12mo,  cl. . .   50 

DMOSSELMAJS'LIENAUX.  "Veterinary  Micro- 
biology."  By  Professors  Mosselman  and  Lienaux, 
Nat.  Veterinary  College,  Cureghem,  Belgium.  Trans- 
lated and  edited  by  E,.  R.  Dinwiddie,  Professor  of 
Veterinary  Science,  College  of  Agriculture,  Arkansas 
State  University.     12mo,  cloth,  312  pages 2  00 

PEGLEB.  "The  Book  of  the  Goat."  12mo,  cloth 1  75 

{**)PELLEBIN.  "Median  Neurotomy  in  the  Treatment 
of  Chronic  Tendinitis  and  Periostosis  of  the  Fetlock." 

By  C.  Pellerin,  late  repetitor  of  Clinic  and  Surgery  to 
the  Alfort  Veterinary  School.  Translated,  with  Addi- 
tional Facts  Relating  to  It,  by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M.D  , 

V.M.     8vo,  boards,  illustrated 100 

See  also  "  Liauiard." 

{**)NOCABD.  "The  Animal  Tuberculoses,  and  their 
Relation  to  Human  Tuberculosis."  By  Ed.  Nocard, 
Professor  of  the  Alfort  Veterinary  College.  Trans- 
lated by  H.  Scurfield,  M.D.  Ed.,  Ph.  Camb. 

Perhaps  the  chief  interest  to  doctors  of  human 
medicine  in  Professor  Nocard's  book  lies  in  the 
demonstration  of  the  small  part  played  by  heredity, 
and  the  great  part  played  by  contagion  in  the  propa- 
gation of  bovine  tuberculosis.  It  seems  not  unreason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  same  is  the  case  for  human 
tuberculosis,  and  that,  if  the  children  of  tuberculosis 
parents  were  protected  from  infection  by  cohabitation 
or  ingestion,  the  importance  of  heredity  as  a  cause  of 
the  disease,  or  even  of  the  predisposition  to  it,  would 
dwindle  away  into  insignificance.  12mo,  cloth,  143 
pages 1  00 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48th  St.),  New  York.  19 


PROCTOR.  "  The  Management  and  Treatment  of 
the  Horse  "  in  the  Stable,  Field  and  on  the  Road. 
By  William  Proctor.    8vo 2  40 


PETERS.  "  A  Tuberculous  Herd-Test  with  Tuber- 
culin." By  Austin  Peters,  M.  R.  C.  V.  S.,  Chief 
Inspector  of  Cattle  for  the  New  York  State  Board  of 
Health  during  the  winter  of  1892-93.     Pamphlet. ... 25 


REYNOLD.     "Breeding  and  Management    of    Draught 
Horses."    8vo,  cloth 140 


ROBERTSON.      "  The  Practice   of  Equine   Medicine." 

A  text-book  especially  adapted  for  the  use  of  Veter- 
inary students  and  Veterinarians.  By  W.  Robertson, 
Principal  and  Professor  of  Hippopathology  in  the 
Royal  Veterinary  College,  London.  8vo.  cloth,  806 
pages, revised  edition.  (Temporarily  out  of  print). 6  25 


DROBERGE.  "The  Foot  of  the  Horse,"  or  Lame- 
ness and  all  Diseases  of  the  Feet  traced  to  an  Unbal- 
anced Foot  Bone,  prevented  or  cured  by  balancing  the 
foot.     By  David  Roberge.    8vo,  cloth 5  00 


(')SEfVELlj.  "The  Examination  of  Horses  as  to 
Soundness  and  Selection  as  to  Purchase."  By  Ed- 
ward Sewell,  M.R.C.V.S  L.     8vo,  paper 1  tO 


Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  R.  Jenkins 


SMITH.         "  A    Manual    of    Veterinary    Physiology.  " 

By  Veterinary  Captain  F.  Smith,  M.R.C.V.S.  Author 
of  "A  Manual  of  Veterinary  Hygiene." 

Throughout  this  manual  the  object  has  been  to  con- 
dense the  information  as  much  as  possible.  The 
broad  facts  of  the  sciences  are  stated  so  as  to  render 
them  of  use  to  the  student  and  practitioner.  In  this 
second  edition — rewritten — the  whole  of  the  Nervous 
System  has  been  revised,  a  new  chapter  dealing  with 
the  Development  of  the  Ovum  has  been  added  together 
with  many  additional  facts  and  illustrations.  About 
one  hundred  additional  pages  are  given.  Second 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  with  additional  illus- 
trations   3  75 

SMITH.     "  Manual  of  Veterinary  Hygiene."    2nd  edition, 
revised .      Crown,  8vo,  cloth 3  25 

DSTRANGEWAF.        "Veterinary     Anatomy."       New 

edition,  revised  and  edited  by  I.  Vaughan,  F.L.S., 
M.R.C.V.S.,  with  several  hundred  illustrations.  8vo, 
cloth 5  00 

{•*)SUSSDOBF.        Large     Colored      Wall       Diagrams. 

By  Professor  Sussdorf,  M.D.  (of  Gottingen).  Text 
translated  by  Prof.  W.  Owen  Williams,  of  the  New 
Veterinary  College,  Edinburgh.  Size,  44  inches  by 
30  inches. 

1.— Horse.  4.— Ox. 

2. -Mare.  5.— Boar  and  Sow. 

3.— Cow.  6.— Dog  and  Bitch. 

Showing  the  position  of  the  viscera  in  the  large 
cavities  of  the  body. 

Price,  unmounted 1  75  each 

««      mounted  on  linen,  with  roller. ..... .3  50    " 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor.  48th  St.),  New  York  21 


(*  )  VAN  MATER.  "A  Text  Book  of  Veterinary  Oph- 
thalmology."  By  George  G.  Van  Mater,  M.D., 
D.V.S.,  Professor  of  Ophthalmology  in  the  American 
Veterinary  College;  Oculist  and  Auristto  St.  Martha's 
Sanitarium  and  Dispensary ;  Consulting  Eye  and  Ear 
Surgeon  to  the  Twenty-sixth  Ward  Dispensary ;  Eye 
and  Ear  Surgeon,  Brooklyn  Eastern  District  Dispen- 
sary, etc.  Illustrated  by  one  chromo  lithograph  plate 
and  seventy-one  engravings,  8vo  cloth 3  00 


VETERINARY     DIAGRAMS      in     Tabular      Form. 
Size,  28|  in.  x  22  inches.    Price  per  set  of  five 4  75 

No.  1.  "The  External  Form  and  Elementary  Ana- 
tomy of  the  Horse."  Eight  colored  illustrations— 
1.  External  regions ;  2.  Skeleton ;  3.  Muscles  (Superior 
Layer) ;  4.  Muscles  (Deep  Layer) ;  5.  Respiratory  Ap- 
paratus ;  6.  Digestive  Apparatus ;  7.  Circulatory  Ap- 
paratus ;  8.  Nerve  Apparatus ;  with  letter-press  descrip- 
tion   1  25 

No.  2.  "  The  Age  of  Domestic  Animals."  Forty-two 
figures  illustrating  the  structure  of  the  teeth,  indicat- 
ing the  Age  of  the  Horse,  Ox,  Sheep,  and  Dog,  with 
full  description 75 

No.  3.    "The  Unsoundness  and  Defects  of  the  Horse." 

Fifty  figures  illustrating— 1.  The  Defects  of  Confor- 
mation ;  2.  Defects  of  Position ;  3.  Infirmities  or  Signs 
of  Disease ;  4.  Unsoundnesses ;  5.  Defects  of  the  Foot ; 
with  full  description 75 

No.  4.    "The  Shoeing  of  the  Horse,  Mule  and  Ox." 

Fifty  figures  descriptive  of  the  Anatomy  and  Physio- 
logy of  the  Foot  and  of  Horse-shoeing 75 


22  Veterinary  Catalogue  of  William  li.  Jenkins 


No.  5.  "The  Elementary  Anatomy,  Points,  and  But- 
cher's Joints  of  the  Ox."  Ten  colored  illustrations 
—  1.  Skeleton;  2.  Nervous  System;  3.  Digestive 
System  (Right  Side) ;  4.  Respiratory  System  ;  5.  Points 
of  a  Fat  Ox  ;  6.  Muscular  System  ;  7.  Vascular  System; 
8.  Digestive  System  (Left  Side);  9.  Butcher's  Sections 
of  a  Calf ;  10.  Butcher's  Sections  of  an  Ox ;  with  full 
description , 1  25 

W ALLEY.    "Hints   on    the    Breeding    and    Rearing    of 
Farm  Animals."     12mo,  cloth 80 

—  "  Four      Bovine      Scourges.  "  (Pleuro  -   Pneumonia, 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease,  Cattle  Plague  and' 
Tubercle.)  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Inspection  of 
Live  Animals  and  Meat.     Illustrated,  4to,  cloth.  .6  40 


C*)1P ALLEY.    "A Practical   Guide  to  Meat   Inspection." 

By  Thomas  Walley,  M.R.C.V.S.,  formerly  principal 
of  the  Edinburgh  Royal  (Dick)  Veterinary  College; 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery,  etc. 
Third   Edition,    thoroughly    revised,   with    forty-five 

colored  illustrations,  12mo,  cloth 3  00 

An  experience  of  over  30  years  in  his  profession 
and  a  long  official  connection  (some  sixteen  years) 
with  Edinburgh  Abattoirs  have  enabled  the  author  to 
gather  a  large  store  of  information  on  the  subject, 
which  he  has  embodied  in  his  book.  Dr.  Walley's  opi- 
nions are  regarded  as  the  highest  authority  on  Meat 
Inspection. 

(*•)  WILLIAMS.  "Principles  and  Practice  of  Veter- 
inary Medicine."  New  author's  edition,  entirely 
revised  and  illustrated  with  numerous  plain  and  color- 
ed plates.    By  W.  Williams,  M.R.C.V.S.8vo.,  el.  .6  00 


851-853  Sixth  Avenue  (cor  48th  St.),  New  York  23 


(••)    'Principles    and   Practice   of  Veterinary  Surgery." 

New  author's  edition,  entirely  revised  and  illustrated 
with  numerous  plain  and  colored  plates.  By  W. 
Williams,   M.K.C.V.S.     8vo,  cloth 6  00 


(*)WYMAN.  "The  Clinical  Diagnosis  of  Lameness 
in  the  Horse."  By  w.  E.  A.  Wyman,  V.S.,  Prof,  of 
Veterinary  Science,  Clemson  A.  &  M.  College,  and 
Veterinarian  to  the  South  Carolina  Experiment  Sta- 
tion.   8vo,  cloth,  illustrated 2  50 


ZUNDELi.      "The   Horse's  Foot  and   Its   Diseases."    By 

A.  Zundel,  Principal  Veterinarian  of  Alsace  Lorraine. 
Translated  by  Dr.  A.  Liautard,  V.S.  12mo,  cloth 
illustrated 2  00 


ZUILLi.  "Typhoid  Fever;  or  Contagions  Influenza 
in  the  Horse."  By  Prof.  W.  L.  Zuill,  M.D.,D.V.S. 
Pamphlet 25 


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